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Post-Mauryan

Post-Mauryan period (c. 200 BCE to 300 CE)

Sources

Literary sources

By this period, Sanskrit had become the principal literary medium, even in Buddhism.
A large amount of Buddhist Avadana literature was written in this period.

Avadanaisatypeofliteraturecorrelatingpreviouslives'virtuousdeedsto the next lives' events.

These stories are usually narrated by Buddha and illustrate the
workings of 'KARMA'.
This literature includes a number of Sanskrit works, including
Mahasanghika's Mahavastu (Great Book),
the Sarvastivada's Avadanasataka (Century of Legends) and
Divyavadana (The Heavenly Legend).
This group of literature also includes the stories of Ashoka i.e. Ashokavadana.

Avadanas occupy the same position for Buddhism that the Puranas do in Hinduism.

The Manu Smriti, written duringthis period,highlightsthe socio-economic conditions from a Brahmanical perspective.

Purana literature began during this period and some aspects of life during this period can be understood with the help of epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Sangam literature is another important source material for the study of this period.
The Greco-Roman accounts are another group of important literary sources, especially the accounts of Arrian, Strabo and Pliny the elder.

The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, written by an unknown person who travelled fromthe Red Seato India,gives important informationforthehistoryof trade.

Chinese sources like the Hou Han Shu highlight movement of people in central Asia, which had a direct impact on the Indian subcontinent duringthis period onaccount of repeated invasion and migration from the North-West.

Archaeological sources

Excavation of ancient cities has unearthed a range of artefacts including deluxe pottery in wide ranging shapes and designs, terracotta art etc.

In North India, we see a significant expansion of the urban centres duringthis period.

Settlements are often fortified and planned.

Some sites in the Deccan and South show a clear transition from the later Megalithic to the urban historical phase.

But many cities do not show any previous occupation levels.
Other sources include coins which are immensely helpful to establish the dynastic history.

Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins which could be definitely attributed to the Kings.

Thebilingualandbi-scriptlegendsoftheircoinsaretheprincipalsource
to study the Indo-Greek Kings.

The Kushanas possibly issued the largest number of gold coins.

They also issued low denomination copper coins.
Their coins had impressions of Kings as well as Gods.

Satavahanas issues a variety of coins in lead, potin, copper and silver.

These coins are useful to study the economic side of the Satavahana
kingdom.

Roman gold coins poured into India on account of a flourishing trade, especially in the Peninsular India.

These coins were locally imitated too.

The Sangam Kingdoms -Chola, Chera and Pandyas- also issued punch marked coins which can be identified from the motifs on these coins.

The city administration of certain prosperous cities issued coins as well viz. Tripuri, Ujjayani, Mahishmati, Varanasi, Taxila, Madhyamika, Airikina (Eran/Airikina) etc.

The Nigama coins reflect the position of merchant guilds in the economy of that time.

During this period, c. 200 BCE- 300 BCE, the number of inscriptions shoots up.

In the North, Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as the inscription language.

Rudradaman's Junagarh inscription was the first inscription in the
chaste Sanskrit.

In the South, earliest Tamil inscriptions start appearing from this period.
A number of royal inscriptions highlight the dynastic-political history and royal patronage networks.

But the donative inscriptions, which outnumber the royal inscriptions, highlight the socio-economic situation and the popular patronage given to the religious institutions.

Political scenario of the Indian subcontinent after the decline of Mauryas

Proliferation of states was a prominent feature during this period.

Some of these states took the form of an empire.

This multiplicity of states was due to the following factors.

The Mauryan Empire encompassed areas which were already suitable for state based polity (i.e. a polity based on the Kingdom, a standing army, an elaborate bureaucracy and revenue collection machinery).

It also included areas which were in the initial stages of the state formation.
The extractive relationship between these areas and the 'Mauryan Empire' acted as aconduit for the diffusion of material culture in these areas which in turn encouraged the state formation process in these areas.

The foremost element of this material culture was surplus agrarian production.

It was facilitated by the diffusion of paddy transplantation and better iron tools etc.

In the Satavahana area between the Godavari and Krishna, rice
cultivation increased so much that it was called Dhanyakataka.

The Mauryan state encouraged regeneration of decaying agricultural settlements and transfer of population in new areas.

This was incentivized with appropriate input subsidies and support.

Perhaps, the Magadhan influence in the Chedi state (post-Mauryan
period) formation in Orissa area can be implied from the inscription of Kharvela which states that the Nanda kings had dug out canals in this area.
Ashok himself encouraged forest dwellers to abandon hunting
through his inscriptions.
Ashoka's Dhamma policy of non-violence may have protected the
cattle wealth which in turn should have facilitated the production process.

Other elements of this material culture include ring wells, northern black polished ware, Brahmi script, coins etc.

B. D. Chattopadhyay has pointed to numerous coins discovered form
different parts of the Deccan which were possibly issued by the local rulers before the advent of the Satavahanas.
All these factors combined together created suitable grounds for proliferation of crafts, trade and urbanisation.

The Successor states after the decline of Mauryas:

Shunga dynasty (185 BCE 75 BCE):

According to Banabhatta's 'Harshcharita', the last Mauryan king Brihadratha was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga, his commander-in-chief during a military ceremony.

Puranas, Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitra and Panini differ in their exact details, but they all attribute a Brahmanical origin to the Shungas.

By the time Pushyamitra took over political power, the Mauryan Empire had substantially shrunk.

The eastern part was dominated by Kharvela, the Deccan by the Andhras and the Indo-Greeks had established political control in the North-West.

According to the available evidence, Pushyamitra retained the central part of the erstwhile Mauryan Empire with its capital at Pataliputra, the region of Malwa with its capital at Ujjaini and the central western part with its capital at Ayodhya.

In the South, Narmada River was their boundary.
Accordingto Divyavadanaand Taranath'saccount,Shungasalsocontrolled the Jalandhar-Sialkot area, but this is not corroborated by any other source.

The first important political event during the rule of Pushyamitra was the annexation of the region of Malwa located in the eastern region of M.P.

In Malavikagnimitra, Pushyamitra's son Agnimitra is the viceroy of Vidisha and this drama also refers to the conflict of Shungas with the King of Vidarbha.

Another important event of Pushyamitra's regime was the invasion of Indo-Greeks. Pushyamitra had to face two invasions led by Greek Bactrian chiefs.

The invader was possibly Demetrius.

The 2 nd century BCE grammarian Patanjali says that the Greeks came
as far as Saketa (Ayodhya) and Madhyamika (Chittor).
This account is substantially corroborated by the presence of Indo- Greek coins in the region.

The Shungas contributed a lot to ancient Indian history, religion, literature and art.

Although they could not preserve the entire Mauryan Empire, they were able to repel the Indo-Greek/Bactrian-Greek forces and suppress some minor political powers which were trying to assert their separate identity.

The Shunga period experienced the revival of Brahmanism as a religious- theological system which reached its culmination under the Guptas.

Pushyamitra revived the Yajnas and sacrifices which were banned by Ashoka.

He performed Ashvamedha sacrifices which speaks of his pro- Brahmanism approach.

This period also saw the growing importance of the Puranic sect of Bhagavatism (based on the religious tradition as reflected in the Puranas, which were first written during this period).

Even the Greeks were among its votaries.
This is reflected by a foreign ambassador Heliodorus, who erected a 'Garuda pillar' in the honour of Vasudeva Krishna at Besnagar (ancient Vidisha).

Heliodorus was the ambassador of the Bactrian-Greek King Antialcidas in the court of Bhagabhadra.

Heliodorus calls himself Bhagavata i.e. the worshipper of the God Vishnu inthe Besnagar pillarinscription,which iswrittenin the Sanskrit language and Prakrit script.

Divyavadana and Taranath narrate stories of Pushyamitra's animosity towards Buddhism.

He is accused of persecution of monks and attempting to destroy Stupas.

But, this description might be an exaggerated reaction to his pro-Brahmanic attitude.

After all, we should remember that the Bharhut stupa was fully built
and the Sanchi stupa was renovated during this period.
Peoplecouldfreelydonatetothemonasteries.So,therewasdefinitely
an environment of tolerance.
Pushyamitrawassucceededbyanumberofrulersincluding Agnimitra,Vasudeva,and Bhagabhadra.

The last Shunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was assassinated (according to the Harshacharita) by his Prime Minister, Vasudeva, who laid the foundation of the Kanva dynasty.

Kanva Dynasty (75 BCE-30 BCE) Only four kings ruled under this dynasty. They were Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susimana. Kanvas were replaced by a little known dynasty Mitras.

Formation of new states by foreign powers:

The Indo-Greeks

With the construction of the Great Wall of China, the Scythians were pushed back from the Chinese border by other tribes of the Eastern Steppe such as the Yuezhi, the

Wusun andthe Xiongnu,beginninga chainreaction that changedthe course of Indian history.

The Scythians turned their attention towards the neighbouring Greeks and Parthians.

The Seleucid Empire, which had been established over the eastern part of Alexander's conquest, lost its control over Bactria and Parthia (an adjoining area in Iran).

Diodotus Soter, the Seleucid satrap of Bactria, established an
independent Bactrian kingdom over this area after the death of the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II around 250 BCE.
Pushed by the Scythian tribes, the Bactrian Greeks were forced to
expand south as they were losing control over their own area.

A series of invasions from North-West began from c. 200 BCE.

The first to cross the Hindu Kush Mountains were the Greeks who
ruled over Bactria, which is the area lying south of the Oxus River and north of the Hindu Kush in North Afghanistan.

Theinvaderscameoneafter another,butsomeofthemruledatthesame time over different areas.

The successors of Ashoka were too weak to repel these foreign invasions.

The Indo-Greeksoccupiedalargepartofnorthwestern India,muchlargerthan that conquered by Alexander.

Gargi Samhita, Mahabhashya and Strabo's account confirm the Greek invasion.

It is said that they pushed forward as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra.

Theywererepelledby the Shungasandrestrictedtowestern Punjaband Sindh.

A large number of Indo-Greek kings are known from their coins. But,their chronology and tenure are unclear.

Some of them may have ruled simultaneously over different areas or jointly as co-rulers.

The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 BCE). Greek historians count him among the greatest conquerors. He is also known by the name 'Milinada'.

According to the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, his coins were accepted at the Bharuch port.

His capital was at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab. He also invaded the Ganga-Yamuna doab.

He was converted to Buddhism by Nagsena.

Another important Greek ruler was Antialkidas.

He sent his ambassador Heliodorus to the court of Shunga ruler Bhagabhadra.

In the 1 st century CE, Indo-Greeks were replaced by the Parthians who were soon assimilated within the Saka identity.

The Indo-Greek rule is important in the history of India because of the large number of coins which the Greeks issued.

The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings.

The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India, which increased in number under the Kushanas.

The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in North-West India. The Gandhara school art was its best example.

The Shakas/ Scythio-Parthians

Different groups of invaders came to India during the 1 st century BCE from central Asia and Persia.

Fragments of their history are known from coins and inscriptions.

Shakas belonged to the larger Scythian ethnic group.

A seriesof tribal movements in central Asiaas aresult of theconsolidation of the Chinese Empire had pushed the Yueh Chi tribe westward where they pushed the Shakas towards Afghanistan and then towards North-West India.

They conquered different parts of India.

The Shakas gradually established control over Afghanistan, Punjab, North India and Upper Deccan region.

An inscription found from Taxila mentions a Shaka ruler, Moga/ Maues.

His name appears on several copper and silver coins also.
It is possible that he conquered this region from the Indo-Greeks.

Another prominent Shaka ruler from Taxila was Azes, who defeated the Indo Greeks and annexed the whole of Punjab.

Gondophernes, identified with king Guduvahra, was another important Parthian ruler who is mentioned in an inscription found from Takht-i-Bahi (an ancient Buddhist monastery site at Mardan in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa).

The Shakas/ Scytho-Parthians used to rule via their governors or subordinate rulers, called 'Kshatrapas'.

These Kshatrapas were often instrumental in the expansion of the Empire.

E.g. The expansion of the Scythian ruler Azilises in the Mathura area
was probably undertaken by Rajuvula.

Many Kshatrapas are known from coins and inscriptions.

E.g. Rajuvula first called himself Kshatrapa and then Maha-Kshatrapa.
He practically became independent in the Mathura area as he was succeeded by his son.

Kushans

The Kushans were a branch of the great Yueh-Chi tribe, originally inhabiting Chinese Turkestan.

This tribe was a splinter of a bigger tribe which was pushed out of the intense competition in the central Asian steppes.

After a series of migration events over a long period of time, they had finally settled into the Afghanistan area.

There were five Yueh-Chi principalities connected with a tenuous central authority.

This tribe was organised by Kujula Kadphises (Kadphises I) who unified the five principalities and laid the foundations of the Kushan Empire.

His coins are found south of the Hindu Kush which indicates that he may have started the expansion into the Indian Subcontinent.

Vima Kadphises,hissuccessor, defeatedthe Parthians andextendedhis rule over the Indus Valley and Mathura region.

Thecoinsof Kadphises Iindicateassociation with Buddhismandthoseof Vima indicate devotion to Shiva.

Kushana rulers called themselves 'Devaputra', literally meaning the 'son of God'.
Kanishka was the greatest ruler among the Kushanas, both in terms of political and cultural achievements.

The available archaeological sources -coins and inscriptions- and literary sources prove that he ruled over a very large area stretching from Bihar in the East to the Khurasan in the West, from Khotan in central Asia to Saurashtra and Malwa in the South.

The Shaka Kshatrapas accepted his suzerainty.

To control this vast empire, he probably had two capitals, one at Peshawar and another at Mathura.

Kanishka is known not only as a conqueror but also for his contribution in enriching Indian culture.

That he was a Buddhist, is proved both by his coins bearing an emblem of the Lord Buddha, and a Peshawar casket inscription.

However, more details regarding his active association with Buddhism came from the Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist traditions.

According to Huen Tsang and Al-Beruni, he constructed a large Stupa and a monastery at Peshawar.

The Buddhist traditionsinformus that Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council at Kundalavana in Kashmir.

He patronised Buddhist scholars like Ashvaghosha and Vasumitra.

Although Kanishka was personally a Buddhist and supported the cause of Buddhism, he was tolerant of different religious traditions.

His coins have motifs drawn from the Indian, Greek and West Asian religious traditions.

Byinscribingtheemblemsof these gods,Kanishkawastryingto accommodate the religious beliefs of the followers of different religions who inhabited his extensive empire.

Kanishka also patronised two schools of Buddhist art one at Mathura and the other at Gandhara.

Majority of the scholars think that the image of the Buddha was fashioned as a cult object for the first time during the reign of Kanishka.

Some prominent contemporary intellectuals like Samgharaksha, Mathara, Charaka and Agesilaus stayed at his court.

Some scholars think that Nagarjuna, the famous Buddhist metaphysicist, also stayed at his court.

Having such a large area under their authority, Kushana possibly ruled through the subordinate rulers, Kshatrapas and Maha Kshatrapas etc.

They may have enjoyed different degrees of freedom within the overall Kushana suzerainty.

With the decline of Kushanas, these regional power centres again became active.

Eg. Shaka Kshatrapas re-emerged in Central and Western India;
coins, seals and inscriptions bear testimony to the existence of many
republicsinmanypartsof North Indiaviz.Malavas(Punjab),Arjunyanas (Bharatpur-Alwar area), Yaudheya (Eastern Punjab) etc.
Coins,seals and inscriptionsofthis period from North India, mention manykings with Naga suffix in their names.

This may indicate the popularity of the Naga cult during this period.

The Shaka Kshatrapas of Western India

Some Shaka Kshatrapas managed to hold on to their territories during the Kushana suzerainty.

After the decline of Kushana, they became independent.
Two important Kshatrapa lineages existed- Kshaharatas and Kardamakas.

The earliest known king of the Kshaharata dynasty was Bhumaka.

He was perhaps a subordinate of Kanishka.
He ruled over Gujarat, Kathiawar and northern Konkan.
His coins have been found from these areas.

Bhumaka was succeeded by Nahapana.

He bore the title of 'Rajan'.
Numerous coins belonging to his reign have been discovered.
He started to expand his territory at the expense of Satavahanas.

The Nasik-Pune area which gave access to the western coastal ports
like Bharuch, Sopara and Kalyan etc. through numerous passes in the Western Ghats, was a bone of contention between Satavahanas and the Kshaharata Kingdom.

Nahapana was killed by the Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satkarni.

He was succeeded by Ushavadata, his general and son-in-law.

He took western Deccan including Malwa.

Around the time the Kshaharata dynasty faded, the Kardamka dynasty came to the fore.

It was established by Chashtana, who was possibly a Kshatrapa of Sindh under Kushanas.

Kardamakas had the practice of having a senior ruler, called Maha-Kshatrapa and a junior ruler, called Kshatrapa.

One of the most important kings of this dynasty was 'Rudradaman'.
He issued the first Sanskrit inscription known as the Junagadh inscription c. 150 CE; and he repaired 'Sudarshan Lake'.

His empire included all the territories of the erstwhile Kshaharata dynasty apart from the Pune- Nasik area.

Creation of new states as result of new power:

Satavahanas

They are identified with the Andhras of the Puranas.

Matsya Purana, Brahmanda Purana, and Vayu Purana give lists of the Satavahana rulers, which don't always match.

Some rulers are identified from the coins and inscriptions but not found in the literary sources.

This dynasty was founded by 'Simuka'.

Although 'Satavahanas' were the local people, they made a claim for Brahmin ancestry.

Initially, they established themselves in the Maharashtra region, then they moved into Andhra and Karnataka region.

The first important king of this dynasty was Satkarni I.
The greatest ruler among the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Satkarni.

He was the 23 rd ruler of the dynasty according to the Puranas.
It was common for the Satavahana kings to use their mother's name.

The Nasikinscriptionofhism other,Gautami Balashri,describeshimasthedestroyer of Shakas and Yavanas.

He has been called the 'Lord of the West' who defied Kharvela of Kalinga.
He has also been named as the 'Lord of Pratishthana'.

Pratishthana was the name of modern Paithan in the north western Deccan.

His conquests took him north of the Narmada into eastern Malwa.

Gautamiputra Satkarni gained control of the region of Sanchi.
An inscription at Sanchi refers to him as 'Rajan Shri Satkarni'.

He then moved in the southern direction and on conquering the Godavari valley he was called 'Lord of the Southern Regions' (Dakshina Pathapati).

He supported the Brahmin orthodoxy and performed an Ashvamedha yajna.

He is referred to as 'Ekabrahmana' (peerless Brahmana) in the Nasik inscription of his mother.

However, the extensive domain of the Satavahanas did not survive long.

The next centurysawtheweakeningof the Satavahanas,with a corresponding increase in the power of local governors claiming independent status.

After the decline of the Satavahanas, Ikshavakus in Andhra, Kadambas in Mysore, Abhiras in Maharashtra and Vakataks came to the fore.

Chedi state

We know about this dynasty from a single source i.e. Hathigumpha inscription of - Kharvela.

This inscription describes Kharvela's conquest.
He also claimed to work for the development of irrigation.

Sangam states

During this period, state formation took place in Kerala, South and North Tamil Nadu. These were the Chera, the Pandya and the Chola states respectively.

As we come to know about these states from the laudatory poems of the Sangam literature, these states are known as Sangam states.

Ashokan inscriptions have mentioned Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputra and Keralputras.

But possibly, during the Maurya period, they had not evolved into full-fledged kingdoms.

Later the inscription of Kharvela made the claim of defeating 'Tamil Desh Sangam'.

So possibly by the 2 nd century BCE, these states came into existence.

These early states emerged in rice growing areas with rich agricultural potential.
They were also parts of the flourishing trade networks.

The Cholakingdomwasbasedoutofthelower Cauveryvalley,withitscapital at Uraiyur and Puhar as its major port.

The Pandya kingdom was based out of the Tamraparni- Vaigai river valley, with its capital at Madurai and Korkai as its major port.

The Chera kingdom was based out of the Kerala coast, with its capital at Karuvur and Tondi and Muchiri as its major ports.

'Vendar' is the term for the crowned kings and 'Velir' is the term for the chieftains, who both fought for and against the 'Vendars'.

The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions corroborate historicity of some of the kings mentioned in the Sangam poems. Evaluation of the post-Mauryan period

Earlier this period was declared to be a dark age due to two factors:

(1) it was an interregnum between two Empires - Mauryan Empire and Gupta Empire; (2) for the study of this period, source material was limited.

But, on the basis of new research, this view has been rejected.

Now, it is accepted that the so-called 'Dark Age' was in one sense, the harbinger of the classical age.

We can underline following changes during this period:

This period was marked by intense trading and cultural relationships between the Mediterranean region and South Asia.

Shaka and Kushan rulers defeated Indian rulers but they did not uproot them.
They permitted them to rule as their subordinate rulers.
So, now a new type of political relationship developed.
It continued through the Gupta age up to the feudal period.

Mauryan kings were satisfied to take the titles like 'Devanampiya' (beloved of Gods), but Kushana rulers preferred to be called 'Devaputra' (son of God).

So, the divine right of kingship developed.
This tendency reached its peak during the Gupta period.

The phenomenon of land-grants started during this period which possibly led to the declining state share in the land revenue.

The Satavahanas and Kshatrapas were the earliest to issue royal inscriptions making tax-exempt land grants.

This started the process of the decentralisation of state power and the rise of intermediaries.

It was during this period that the royal inscriptions started to be inscribed in the Sanskrit language instead of the Prakrit language.

The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman is the first example in this case.
This trend continued through Gupta period up to the early-medieval age.

During this period, two different schools of sculpture art, viz. Gandhara School and Mathura school developed.

Later,asaresultofassimilationbetweenthesetwoschools,Sarnath Schoolcameinto existence during the Gupta period.

Administrative innovations

Shaka, Kushan and Satavahana kings defeated local rulers but they didn't annex their

Kingdoms. They retained them as subordinate vassal states.

This phenomenon affected the nature of administration by creating states within a state.

As a number of subordinate kings existed under an emperor, so, in order to distinguish his

position from the subordinate king, the emperors started to adopt exalted titles.

Many Greek and Shaka-Parthians took titles like 'Maharaja', 'Rajadhiraja' etc. 'Shaonanashao' (King of Kings) was a Kushana title.

Further,assomedynasties hadforeign origin (Shakas,Kushanas)and othershadtribal origin (Satavahanas), they sought the respect of their subject populations and legitimacy in the eyes of the priestly class.

So,theyclaimedadivinerightofkingshipandtriedtolinkroyaltywithdivinity.
E.g. Kushanas startedtocompare themselveswith Krishna, Balram, Bhima and Arjun. Kushanas called themselves Devaputras.

In order to establish firm control over the tribal and rural region, the state started to

augment the military element in administration.

Indo-Greeks employed military governors known as 'Strategos'.
The administration of the rural areas in the Satavahana Kingdom was placed in the hands of a 'Gaulmika', the head of a military contingent consisting of 9 chariots, 9 elephants, 25 cavalry, and 45 infantry.

He was posted in the countryside to maintain order.

This military character of the state is also evident from the use of terms such as 'Kataka' and 'Skandhavara' in their inscriptions.

These were military camps which served as administrative centres when the king was on tour.

Thus, coercion played a key role in the Satavahana administration.

With an objective to assimilate the tribal regions into the socio-religious mainstream, the

Satavahanas kings first started granting lands to Brahmins and then to Buddhist monks.

Earlier, Ashoka had tried to promote cultural homogeneity through the policy of 'Dhamma'.

Now, the new dynasties adopted the method of land grants for the aforementioned purpose.

Brahmin and Buddhist monks were supposed to impart education on civilised life to the bordering tribes in return for the tax free status of their land grant.

Furthermore, grantees were given administrative rights as well.

As an influence of the tribal values, we can see matrilineal elements in the Satavahana

polity.

Satavahana kings were known by their mother's name.
Furthermore, along with 'Senapati', even his wife's name was modified as 'Senapatni'. Economy The economy of India between 200 BCE and 300 CE was marked by an increased intensity.

During this period, the agrarian economy was expanding at a much faster pace. Likewise, internal andexternal trade reacheditsclimax,leadingto aboomingmoneyeconomy and 2 nd urbanisation process.

Agriculture

A number of factors encouraged expansion of agrarian economy during this period

Through land grants, cultivation expanded into border areas as well.

In a typical instance of land grant, at least half of the allotted land used to be fallow land. Furthermore, the earlier grants were given in remote bordering regions.

This fallow land had to be developed by grantees themselves with the help of tribals.
Even Manu(Manusmriti)assertsthatthegranteesshouldaccepttheuncultivated land in the land grants.

The irrigation system was being developed by the state itself.

For example, the repair of Sudarshan Lake by Rudradaman.

Even individual initiatives to expand the cultivation were encouraged.

Forexample,Manudeclaredthatthelandbelongstothepersonwhocultivatesitfirst.
In the normative literature, construction and repair of irrigation systems -tanks and wells- are lauded as pious acts.

Donative inscriptions of individuals and institutions like guilds are replete with references of such localised irrigation systems.

We come to know from Manu, that the state was supposed to make laws to protect the

interest of cultivators.

Manu prescribes capital punishment to those who breach an irrigation system.

Proliferation of cash crops and diversification of crop varieties took place during this

period.

Pliny talks about sugarcane plantations.
The expansion of agriculture in Deccan must have promoted cotton cultivation in the black soil areas.

D. D. Kausambi deciphered an inscription at Nasik which mentions a huge coconut plantation.

Black pepper plantation in Kerala gained prominence by this period.

Pliny's 'Historica Naturalis' speaks highly of this spice.

Milindapanha explains the difference between the exquisite rice, 'sali', fit for royal consumption and 'kumudbhandika', the rice variety for commoners.

Craft Production

During the post-Mauryan period, one can underline the expansion of crafts.

For example, the 'Digha Nikaya' mentions about 24 types of crafts.
Likewise, a text belonging to the Mauryan period, 'Mahavastu', gives a description of 36 types of crafts.

Ontheotherhand,atextbelongingto the Post-Mauryanperiod,'Milindapanha',gives a list of 75 types of occupations, out of them 60 were exclusively associated with crafts.

During this period, different crafts and industries were organised around different

regions.

For example, Ujjain was famous for bead-making.
At Mathura, there was the production of a special type of cloth known as 'Shatka'.
Magadha was noted for the production of iron implements.

Nalgonda and Karimnagar in Andhra region were also known for the production of iron-works.

Arikamedu and Uraiyur were famous for their dyeing industry.
Pliny, Ptolemy and Strabo etc. have mentioned different production centres in northern and southern India.

Pliny calls India as the mother of gems and precious stones.
From a text, Periplus of Erythrean Sea, we come to know that Korkai was an important centre of pearl-fishing.

Trade

During this period the internal and external trade reached its climax. A number of factors contributed to it.

As a result of urbanisation, trade in grains from rural to urban areas became an important

occupation.

As a result of land grants, a prosperous class came into existence which increased the

demand for luxury goods.

Even heterodox sects like Buddhism and Jainism became huge consumers.

Now, vast amounts of wealth was amassed in the Buddhist monasteries from donations and offerings.

Furthermore, the worship of stupas and idols started.
All these factors increased the demand for goods.

Above all, it was the time when India was interlinked in a global trade network which

linked the Roman Empire in the west with the Han Empire of China in the east.

India was a big supplier of spices to the Roman Empire.

Inordertofulfiltheadditionaldemandofspicesandotherrelatedgoods,India developed trading relations with S.E. Asia which was also an important centre for spice production.

Kushanas controlled a part of the silk route which boosted trade.

India traded with China via this Silk Road as well as the marine routes passing through the South China Sea.

Thus,aglobaleconomywascreatedduringthe early Christiancenturies and Indiawas certainly a pivot of this economy.

Monsoon winds werediscovered in the 1 st century CE, so seafaringbe came comparatively

easy.

This allowed ships to harness the wind in order to bolster their navigation speed by using the knowledge of wind speed and direction

Items of Export and Import

India used to export a number of items to the Western Roman Empire.

Black pepper was in so much demand that it was known as 'Yavan-priya', literally meaning favourite of Yavanas.

Apart from spices, a number of other items were exported to the Western Roman Empire including iron and iron cutlery, silk goods, cotton goods, gems etc.

In return, India received gold and silver, Arretine potteries, wine and glass goods.
The balance of trade was definitely in favour of India. Pliny expressed grief over the continuous drain of precious metal from the Roman Empire to India.

Trade routes

Land route-

Different trade routes were being used during this period.

For example, 'Uttarapatha' had already been in existence from the time of Megasthenes.

Throughthisroute,Peshawar and Taxilawerelinkedto Broachonthe Western coast and Tamralipti on the eastern coast.

Furthermore, 'Dakshinapatha' became prominent as well.

Ujjain was linked to Amravati through a route.
Likewise, another route directly linked Muziris and Kaveripattinam.

Ports-

We come to know about a number of ports on the Western and Eastern coast.

For example, Periplus of the Erythrean Sea mentions about 24 ports.
Barbarikam and Broach (Bharukachchha) were two important ports in the North.

Barbarikam was situated at the mouth of river Indus and Broach at Gujarat coast.

In Bengal, Tamralipti was an important port.
Likewise, we come to know about the ports like Tondi, Muziris etc. on the Malabar Coast.

On the Eastern Seaboard (Coromandel Coast), Kaveripattanam, Arikamedu and Korkai were the important ports.

Guilds and Corporations

During the post Mauryan period, merchants and craftsmen were organised into different guilds and corporations. Jataka stories refer to 18 guilds.

The guilds were playing an important role, not simply in the economy but also in society.

The guilds had a right to regulate the life of their members.

For example, if the wife of craftsmen was going to join a Buddhist monastery, she needed the permission of not simply her husband but also of the guild to which the husband-wife belonged.

The guilds were entitled to their own seals, flags and laws.
Guilds were among the prominent donors to the religious institutions like monasteries, stupas etc.

A donative inscription at Junnar records a gift of a cave by the guild of corn dealers.

In the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, the guilds are referred to as 'nikams'.
Some of the guilds even issued coins.

e.g. a guild from Taxila issued coins with the legend 'negama' on the reverse side in Brahmi dated to the c. 2 nd century BCE.

Such coins have been recovered from other cities too.

Money Economy

The period from 200 BCE to 300 CE represented the high point of the money economy and 2 nd urbanisation.

During this period, not simply gold and silver coins were minted, even copper, bronze and lead coins came into use.

The multiplicity of coins was a feature of this age.

Urbanisation

New urban centres emerged and old ones expanded.

For example,Taxila, Peshawar, Sialkot, Banaras,Mathuraand Pataliputra developed as important urban centres under Kushanas.

Ujjain developed into an important centre under Shakas.
The port cities like Arikamedu, Muziris and Kaveripattanam also developed as important centres.

Likewise under Satavahanas, Paithan, Amaravati, Bhrigukachcha etc. developed as important urban centres.

Society The period from 200 BCE to 300 CE is significant in the sense that certain changes, which laid the foundations of the Hindu society and religion, took place during this period. They can be summed up as follows:

It was duringthis period that the assimilation of tribal elements in themainstream society

via the agency of land grants.

In fact,we can also underlinethe assimilation of significant foreign elements in Indian society during this period.

Along with the invaders came their culture, which was fully absorbed by India.

According to one view, a social crisis was going on during this period which was expressed

through the term 'Kaliyuga' in the contemporary Puranas.

Thissocialcrisismanifesteditselfintherevoltoflower Varnasagainstthehigherones.
Even, Manu Smriti gives a hint towards this social tension when it says that there should be complete unity among the higher Varnas when dealing with the lower Varnas.

Agrowingnumberof Varnasamkaras waspossiblybothacauseandresultofgrowing social tensions.

Forexample,thetotalnumberof Varnasamkaras was 12 inthe Buddhisttexts, but it increased up to 61 in Manu Smriti.

Later, these Varna Samkaras developed into different castes.

Manu perceived a strong challenge to the Brahmanical social order and it was in this

context that he prescribed a rigid social structure in the Manusmriti.

For example, Manu emphasises over the privileges of Brahmins.
He declared that a ten year old Brahmin was superior to a 100 year old Kshatriya.

Initially he rejected foreigners as Malechchas but considering their status as the ruling

class he later accepted them as second class Kshatriya.

Manu is harsh on Shudras.

Earlier, Kautilya had given Shudras the right to practice agriculture, cattle breeding and trade.

But Manu confined Shudras only to crafts and service.

In fact, Manu was conscious that on the one hand, the number of surplus producing lower Varnasshouldbeincreasedbutontheotherh and,surplussharinghigher Varnas should be limited.

Furthermore in order to maintain the purity of Varnas, women were subordinated to

males.

That's why Manu takes a tough approach towards women.

Forexample,widowremarriagewasprohibitedandearlymarriageforgirls was encouraged.

Likewise, women were denied property rights in inheritance.
They could only keep gifts (Stri Dhan) etc. The essence of the above prescribed social rigidity with some regional and temporal variations continued through the subsequent period right up to the beginning of the modern age.

But, we should remember that Manusmriti was a reaction to the prevailing social conditions and not the work of some sovereign authority commanding complete control over social life.

It is hard to tell how much of what he prescribed was actually observed in practice.

A period when heterodox sects were so popular and the cross cultural currents were blowing strong, the Smritis in general and Manusmriti in particular could not be the only source of public morality and state laws.

Religion One important factor that induced changes in contemporary religion was the assimilation of non-Aryan elements. The following changes were observed:

Due to the influence of non-Brahmanical elements, the idea of Bhakti developed. It

implied complete surrender to the individual god.

Later, even the concept of reincarnation came into existence via Puranas.
On this basis, assimilation between Aryan and non-Aryan gods became possible.
Bhaktism influenced all contemporary sects.

For example, the cult of Mahayana developed in Buddhism.
Likewise, Jainism adopted idol worship.
Furthermore, Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism developed as the main Brahmanic cults.

As a result of the influence of non-Aryan elements, some new practices appeared during

this period.

For example, the cult of Lord Shiva,the cult of Kumar Kartikeya and Ganesha, the tree cult, the animal cults, the serpent cult etc.

Later, they all became parts of Hinduism.
In this way, the changes in Indian society and religion from 200 BCE to 300 CE constitute a landmark in Indian history.

Therefore, Bhaktism, reincarnation and idol worship became the important pillars of Hinduism.

Art and Architecture

The Mauryanarchaeologicalsiteshaveyieldeda largenumberofterracottafigurines.

Thisindicatesthattheartisticcreationswerenotconfinedto the Imperialcourt alone.

Even when the Mauryanimperialartdeclined andnewartformsemerged,the practice of producing terracotta figurines continued on a substantial scale.

Wealsohavefoundinformationabouttheconstructionofstupasduring the Mauryan period, from the accounts of Fa-Hein, Hiuen-Tsang etc.

Sanchi, Sarnath, Taxila and Bharhut were some of the religious centres where Stupa may have been originally built in the Mauryan period.

Many of these Stupas were renovated and enlarged in the later period. In the period between 200 BCE and 300 CE, the following were the general characteristics of art:

Artistic activities were mostly related to religious practice and symbols associated with

them.

Buddha idols began to be sculpted in this period.

It was a departurefrom the earlier manner of representinghim symbolically i.e. in the form of Bodhi tree, Stupa, foot prints, etc.

Idol worship became common among other religions as well.

The construction of Stupa, Chaityas and Viharas became vastly popular.
The various art forms and the allegorical representations were not exclusive to any

particular religion.

Forexample,the Bharhut and Sanchi Stupasnotonlydepictscenesfrom the lifeofthe Buddha but Yakshas, Yakshanis, Nagas and other popular deities are also represented in the relief sculptures.

Similarly, the artists carved many natural scenes -which they observed in nature- along

with the religious ideas on the railings and walls of Stupas.

In fact, these are examples of secular art forms.

Because of regular interactions with other cultures during this period, we find influence of

non-Indian elements in the artistic creations of this period.

This is particularly true of the Gandhara region (North-West) where many different elements were assimilated in the stone sculptures.

Paintings

The earliest paintings of Ajanta caves are associated with the Andhra-Satavahanas.

At Ajanta, we find a total of 29 caves.

Among them cave no. 9 and 10 are associated with the post Mauryan period.

Architecture

The architecture of this period can be broadly divided in two categories:

Residential structures
Religious monuments

We have very few surviving monuments from the first category since they were built from perishable materials like wood.

However, a number of religious monuments have survived and have been unearthed through excavations.

Residential Architecture

The'Milinda Panho'describes Sakalaasacitywithmoats,ramparts,gatehouses,towers,well laid out streets, markets, parks, lakes and temples.

There are references to buildings having several stories, wagon-vaulted roofs and verandas.

They were mostly constructed from wood.
This description is corroborated by archaeological sources to an extent.

Temples

For this period, we have insufficient data on temple structures. The earliest known temples from this period are:

The temple at Jhandial (Taxila)
The Sankarshana temple at Naghari (Rajasthan)
The temple at Besnagar (Madhya Pradesh)
An apsidal temple at Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh).

The construction of temples in which deities were enshrined for worship became common only at a later point and the Buddhist Stupas and other structures were the more common forms of religious architecture in this period.

Stupas

Thepracticeofpreserving the remains of animportantpersonality belowaccumulatedearth was long in existence.

Buddhist art adopted this practice and the structure built over such a site was known as a Stupa.

According to Buddhist sources, the last remains of the Buddha's body were divided in eight parts and placed under the Stupas.

These, during the time of Ashoka, were dug out and redistributed, which led to the construction of other Stupas.

The worship of Stupas led to their gradual ornamentation through their successive renovations and a specific type of architecture developed for their construction.

Stupas had the shape of a bowl turned upside down.
Its inner part (layer) was made of brick but the exterior was made of stone.
At the top, which was flatter, was its harmika, i.e. the abode of the Gods.

It was here, the urn containing the remains of the Buddha or a great personality connected with the religion, was placed in a gold or silver casket.

A wooden rod (Yashti) was placed in its middle and the bottom of the rod was fixed on the top of the Stupa.

On the top of this rod, three small umbrella-like discs were placed which symbolised respect, veneration and magnanimity.

Around the stupa a railing was put up which worked as a circumambulatory path.
The Stupa was fenced by a boundary wall with an entrance or gateway (Toran).
The gateway was decorated with figures and sculptures of animals and humans.

The sculptures of Yakshas and Yakshinis are quite impressive.
Most of these images and sculptures were associated with the popular cult.

Some of the famous stupas of the period include the Sanchi Stupa, Bharhut Stupa, Amaravati Stupa and the stupas at Taxila.

Chaityas and Viharas

Both the Buddhist and the Jains built Chaityas and Viharas in caves as places of worship and residence respectively.

A Chaitya is a shrine cell with a votive Stupa placed in the centre.

Most of the major Chaityas and Viharas of this period were built in the western and eastern coastal regions.

For example in Western India, they are located at Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Nasik, Ajanta and Kanheri etc.

Similarly, in Eastern India we have Stupas and monasteries at Udayagiri (Orissa).

The general features of Chaityas are:

They have a long rectangular hall ending in a semicircle at the rear end.
This long hall is internally divided into a nave, an apse and two side aisles.
The aisles are separated from the nave by two rows of pillars.
These pillars come round the votive Stupa placed in the centre of the apsidal part of the

cave.

The hall has a barrel-vaulted ceiling.
The doorway is usually placed facing the votive Stupa.
Thefacadehas ahorseshoeshaped window calledthe Chaityawindow.It reflectsthe light

coming from outside on the stupa.

Viharas

Another aspect of cave architecture arethe Viharas or monasteries. Both Buddhistsand Jains made these for the use of monks. Viharas were primarily cut out of rocks for residential use.

The general features of the Viharas are:

They had a square or oblong hall in the centre.

The hall was preceded by a pillared veranda in front.
A number of small square cells were provided.
The cells and halls were usually provided with raised benches which were cut out of rocks

for the use of monks.

Theearliestof Viharasof Western Indiawereatsitessuchas Bhaja,Bedse,Ajanta,Pitalkhora, Nasik and Karle.

Sculpture Art

Sculptures form a part of the architectural structures like a Stupa or a Chaitya e.g. relief features on the stone railings of the Stupa.

Duringthis period,wenoticethedevelopmentofregionalorlocalstyles/schoolsinsculptural art.

Gandhara and Mathura school developed in the North while Amaravati was the early centre in the lower Krishna-Godavari valley.

In general, the art of thepost-Mauryan period was distinct in character from earlier Imperial Mauryan Art.

The Mauryan art has been described as royal art, whereas the art of the Shunga- Kanva period had a much wider social base.

It was also different in its motive, technique and significance. The art of this period is mostly represented in the Buddhist images and relief sculptures carved on the railings, gateways and plinths of the Stupas and the walls of the Viharas and Chaityas.

An important development of this period is the fashioning of the Buddha statues, both in the Mathura and Gandhara schools.

Following the Buddhist and Jains, the Brahmanical religions also adopted these practices. However, Brahmanical sculptures for this period are very few.

Gandhara School

Gandhara islocated in the North-Western part ofthe Indian subcontinent.It was ruled bythe Mauryas, Indo-Greeks, Shakas and Kushanas.

Consequently, this place produced a mixed culture.

The chief patrons of the Gandhara art were the Indo-Greeks, Shakas and the Kushanas.

Features

Its art, which was mainly Buddhist, was profoundly influenced by Hellenistic art.

It developed from the interactions of Greek, Roman and Indian elements.
For example, the depiction of transparent garment draped in Greco-Roman fashion and curly hair in the Buddha idols.

Blue-grey schist stone was used to make these idols.

3.Theseidolsgivearealisticrepresentation ofthehumanfigures,clearlyindicatinglimbs and other organs of the body.

The idols have sharp features and anatomical accuracy which was a Greek influence.

The spirituality reflecting from these sculptures and the theme of these statues

represented the Indian influence.

Mathura Art

The origin of the Mathura art form is traced back to the 2 nd century BCE.

By the 1 st century CE, it had not only become a major centre of art but the art pieces of this school were in demand in far off areas.

Over a time span of nearly four hundred years this school produced a variety of sculptures and other pieces of art. It had the following main features -

It represented the Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical faiths.
It used local red stone.
The artists were very particular about showing spirituality on the face of the sculpture.
The artists were not keen on giving a realistic representation of human anatomy and

clothes.

Normally, the clothes were shown transparently clinging to the body.

Amaravati Art

The Amaravati School of art developed in the Eastern Deccan (lower part of the Krishna and Godavari valley) during this period.

It was initially patronised by the Satavahana rulers and later by Ikshavaku rulers, other political dignitaries and families, officials, merchants, etc.

Inspired by Buddhist themes, the main centres of this art were Nagarjunkonda, Amaravati, Goli, Ghantasala, Jaggayyapeta etc.

The sculptural forms are found on the railings, plinths and other parts of several Stupas.

The reliefs represented the traditional narrative art taking themes from Buddha's life and Jataka stories.

For example, on a relief panel at Amaravati, the story of Buddha taming an elephant and the commotion preceding it, is depicted.

The general features of the Amaravati School of art are following;

The figures were carved out of white marble.
It was inspired by Buddhism.
Physical beauty and sensual expressions are more prominent than the concept of

salvation.

Though nature is depicted, the main subjects were human beings.
Kings, princes and palaces figured prominently in sculptural representations.

Science and Technology

In post-Maurya times, Indian astronomy and astrology benefitted from the contact with the Greeks.

We notice many Greek terms about the movement of planets in the Sanskrit texts.

The Greekcoins,whichwere properlyshaped and stamped,were an improvement on punch-marked coins.

However, the Indians did not owe anything important to the Greeks in medicine, botany and chemistry.

These three subjects were dealt by Charaka and Sushruta.
The 'Charaka Samhita' contains names of numerous plants and herbs from which drugs were prepared for the medicinal purposes.

The processes laid down for pounding and mixing of the plants give us an insight into developments in the period immediately preceding the Christian era.

The spread of Indian Culture

Although,Ashoka's missionariestravelledfarto the Westbuttheresultoftheirwork in Antiochand Alexandriaandotherdistantcountriesremainsamatterof speculation.

However, the Kushan Empire of Kanishka, Huviska and Vasudeva became the carrier of Indian thought to Central Asia.

Kanishkawasapatronof Mahayana Buddhism,andhisempireoutside Indiabecame a scene of Indian missionary activity.

From 68 CE onwards, there was a continuous and uninterrupted flow of scholars, monks and missionaries to China, of whom the most famous was Kumarajiva.

The great Kasyapa Matanga and Dharmaranta were actually employed in missionary work in Indo-Scythian countries when the Chinese ambassadors met them.

The Indianisation of Khotan, Kuqa and other areas in Central Asia is still visible through the great mass of Buddhist literature that has been discovered there.

The whole of Central Asia was a meeting point of different cultures since it straddled across the famous silk trade route between China and Rome.

Buddhism flourished in all these regions.

However, traces of Brahmanical religion are also found in Khotan &
other places.
Besides religion, Indian influence can also be traced in art and architecture.

Probably, some Indian artists from Khotan had migrated to China.

Various remnants of frescos leave no doubt that not only the
iconography but the techniques of drawing, conventions and mannerism was derived from the Buddhist paintings in India.

Stucco figures were modelled on the existing ones at Gandhara.

Tibet was brought under the ambit of Buddhism in the 7 th century CE.

Later, Tibetansborrowed the Kashmiri script which was later transformed into the Tibetan script of today.

Tibetan Buddhists came to India in large numbers during the Pala period and there was a lively exchange between Tibet and Pala kingdom.

Political and cultural ties between India and Central Asia continued till about the 8 th century CE.

The gradual advance of Islam and the suspension of the silk trade on account of insecure conditions resulted in the rupture of political and cultural ties between India and central Asia.

Literature

Literary activities during this period took various forms.
Sanskrit emerged as the chief medium of literary expressions of all kinds.

Important writers of the period were Ashvaghosha (Buddhacharitra, Saudaranacha), Nagarjuna (Prajmaparamita, Sutra-Shastra), Bhasa (Svapanasavadattam), Nagsena (Milindpanho in Pali), Bharata (Natyashastra)

etc.

Sangam Literature

The term 'Sangam' denotes the assembly of poets.
According to a Tamil tradition, a vast corpus of literature was produced in the three successive assemblies.

We get the reference of Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (Sangam states) from this literature.

According to a Tamil mythology, three successive assemblies were held at Madurai.
These assembly continued for 9990 years.
In the 1 st assembly gods & saints participated.

A number of literary compositions were produced but all were destroyed in a deluge.

In the 2 nd assembly too, gods & saints participated and a number of compositions were produced but even they were destroyed due to a deluge except one text i.e.

Tolkappiyam (by Tolkappiyar).

Then, a 3 rd assembly gathered and a large number of scholars participated in it.

It was in this assembly 'Melkanku' & 'Kilkanku' were composed.
'Melkanku' is a narrativeliterature while 'Kilkanku' is a didactic (with teaching) literature.

Putting aside the mythology, if we observe the Tamil literature, we notice that the earliest Tamil literature was compiled somewhere between 1 st century CE to 3 rd century CE.

Unlike Vedic literature which belonged to the elite section of Indian society, Sangam literature reflected the life of the common people.

We can divide Tamil literature in two groups i.e. 'Agam' (eternal or pertaining to love) & 'Puram' (pertaining to eulogy of the kings).

These poems were composed by the bards who were in touch with common people.

Tamil literature has a stratified structure.

In every succeeding layer, we can underline the growing influence of northern elements.

First layer (Patinenmelkanakku)

It consists of 8 anthologies (Ettutogai) and 10 village songs (Pattupattu).
This is narrative literature.
Although even in this literature, we see the influence of northern elements, but this influence is less as compared to the second and third layer.

Second layer (Padinen Kilkanku)

It is didactic literature.
It consists of 18 minor texts.
Among them 'Tirukkural' & 'Naladiyar' are important.
In this layer of literature, we can see the growing influence of northern elements.

Third layer (Epics)

Later, great epics like 'Silappadikaram' and 'Manimekalai' were composed.
In these texts, the influence of northern elements is prominent.

Initially, poets wrote short poems.
Then, they started to compose epics due to the influence of Ramayana & Mahabharata.

Also, earlier Tamil literature had a strong sense of 'this worldliness' in
its approach.
It was the literature of love and war.
But epics started to talk in terms of 'Nirvana' & 'Kaivalya'.