Harappan Civilisation

Harappan Civilisation

It represents the first urbanisation in the Indian subcontinent.

Origin of the Harappan Civilisation

Controversies abouttheorigin, nature of urbanisation and decline ofthe Harappan civilisation persist

due to the following factors-

1. The Harappan script has not been deciphered yet.
2. On most of the Harappan sites, only vertical excavation has been carried out. Not being able

to conduct horizontal excavation means precious information to create a complete picture of

the Harappan civilisation remains missing.

There are different theories about the origin of Harappan civilisation:

1. Theory of Mesopotamian Origin (Diffusion theory)

• Harappan civilization came to light after excavations were carried out at Harappa by John

Marshall and Daya Ram Sahni and Mohenjodaro by R.D. Banerjee.

• Some British scholars tried to trace the roots of this civilisation. British scholars like Gordon,

Kramarand Mortimer Wheeleremphasisedtheideaof Mesopotamianoriginof the Harappan

civilisation.

• While Gordon and Kramar talked about the migration of people from Mesopotamia

to Meluha (Harappa), Mortimer Wheeler laid emphasis on the import of the idea of

urbanisation from Mesopotamia.

Arguments in favour of this theory-

• Most of the Harappan cities, including Harappa and Mohenjodaro, were divided into two

parts i.e. citadel and lower town.

• Citadels are fortified. So, it seems that those living in the citadel area were not

interested in regular interactions with the inhabitants of the lower town.

• On this ground, the propagators of the foreign origin theory tried to prove that those

who lived in the citadel area, might have belonged to a foreign elite group.

• In some Harappan structures, like the granaries at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, wooden roof

work was done.

• These structures had some architectural similarity with the Mesopotamian

structures.

Arguments against this theory

• There was a vast difference in the town planning patterns of the two civilisations.
• While Harappan towns were built on a grid pattern, the Mesopotamian towns were

laid out in a haphazard manner.

• There was a difference in the nature of seals, seript and implements.
• E.g. The Mesopotamian seals were cylindrical in shape whereas the Harappan seals

were either rectangular or square.

• Likewise the Harappan script was pictographic but the Mesopotamian script was

cuneiform- which has been deciphered.

• Apart from that, the Mesopotamians produced finer copper implements than the

Harappan artisans.

• So,thetheoryof Mesopotamianoriginhasalmostbeendiscarded.Thewholedebatehasnow

moved towards the theory of 'Gradual Evolution'.

1. The theory of 'Gradual Evolution'

• It began to be argued that the Harappan Civilisation organically emerged from different rural

cultures spread over the vast region in the North-Western part of the Indian subcontinent.

• Amalanand Ghosh has postulated the origin of Harappan Culture from the Sothi Culture of

Rajasthan.

• He came to this conclusion on the basis of similarities of potteries of Harappan

Civilisation and Sothi Culture.

• Later, M. R. Mughal took up this issue. On the basis of his comprehensive study of the rural

cultures of Cholistan area, he found them to be the genesis of Harappan Civilisation.

• His theory was based, not only on pottery, but also on a meticulous assessment of

implements, seal, script, subsistence pattern etc.

• Since the first excavations at Harappa, excavations have been going on continuously.
• So, a lot of new sites have been discovered and excavated. New breakthroughs have

beenmadein thestudyof Harappan civilization with the helpofcontinuous research,

re-excavation of some old sites and analysis of the old materials from a fresh

perspective.

• If we look at the Harappan sites of Dholavira from Gujarat, Kunal from Haryana and Harappa

from Pakistani Punjab, we find that all these three archaeological sites show a transition from

the early Harappan phase to mature Harappan phase.

• Now, it is widely believed that the Harappan civilisation gradually evolved from the village

cultures which were spread in the vast region of North-Western part of the Indian

subcontinent like Sothi-Siswal culture (Rajasthan/Haryana), Amri-Kot Diji Culture (Sindh),

Irani-Balochi village culture, Hakra Wares Culture etc.

The process of Evolution -

1. The Neolithic phase (5500-3200 BCE)

• While observing the Neolithic sites in the North-West, we realise that the alluvial soil beds of

the Indus system were fertile but they were subjected to the annual flooding. So, practising

agriculture in this region was difficult.

• Gradually, the people in this region learnt to use the fertile soil by growing crops after the

annual flooding season was over i.e. sowing in November and harvesting in April.

• Theyalso developedtheskillstochannelisetheflooding withthehelpofbarrages,canalsetc.
• In due course of time, they also learnt to utilise the stone quarries in the surrounding areas

and started to make sophisticated stone tools.

• Consequently, a number of prosperous rural cultures developed in the north-west between

5500 BCE and 3200 BCE. E.g. Rehman Dheri, Gumla, Kila Tarkai, Jalilpur, Ranaghundia, etc.

1. Early Harappan phase (3200 BCE - 2600 BCE)

• The next phase of material development is visible during the Early Harappan phase between

3200 BCE to 2600 BCE.

• The most significant technological development during this period was seen in the area of

agriculture; it was the usage of the wooden plough.

• A much larger area could be brought under cultivation with the help of plough.
• Initially,manpowerwentintodrawingit,later,animalswereharnessedforploughing.
• There was a diversification in the cultivated crops, and apart from grains like wheat and

barley, even commercial crops like cotton were grown.

• We find evidence of cotton from Mehrgarh.
• Various crafts developed as craft specialisation took place as well.
• E.g. bronze metal began to be used.
• 'Spindle' was used for 'spinning' and 'fabric weaving' also started.
• The use of wheels had started during the Neolithic period. It was first used to make pottery.

Later, it was fitted to carts.

• Therefore, technological advancement accelerated not only production, but

transportation as well.

• The production of commercial crops like cotton encouraged the craft activities. Craftsmen

were settled in different regions. So, some sort of network developed between them; thus

started the regional trade. Long distance trade also developed during this period.

• Alluvial plains of the Indus River system were linked to the mountainous Balochistan.

The nomadic people of this region domesticated sheep and goats.

• They periodically moved into the Indus valley in search of the pasture. During floods

they would move back to the mountains of Baluchistan and finally to the Iranian

plateau.Itwasthiselementwhichlinked the West Asianregionwith the Indusregion.

• Trade led to the development of a script as well. Because it was essential to maintain records

of the transactions.

• Then, as the artisans and merchants were settled in some specific regions, they needed food

and commercial crops. These products were supplied to them by some sort of authority or

government.

• Theauthoritiesmighthaveimposedtaxestotakethesurplusfromtheruralareas and

channelize this surplus to the urban centres.

• Areas with the production surplus were connected to the granaries.
• Even tax authorities needed a script to maintain taxation records. From the early

Harappan sites like Padri (Gujarat), we find evidence of the use of script.

• By this period, the processes of change became so complex that some sort of ideological

support structure- religious beliefs, state, kinship etc.- became necessary to sustain these

complex socio-political interactions.

• Thus, fertile ground had been laid for the emergence of a centralising or unifying

entity, a typical civilisational force.

• But we are not yet sure about the ideology of the Harappan people because the

Harappan script has not been deciphered yet.

• Some Early Harappan Sites: Kila Tarkai, Lewan,Rehman Dheri, Gumla, Damb Sadat, Nal, Kulli,

Nindowari, Nausharo, Balakot, Amri, Mohenjodaro, Jhang, Sarai Khola, Harappa, Jalilpur,

Kalibangan, Sothi-Siswal, Rakhigarhi, Kunal, Banawali, Bhirrana, Gamanwala, Nagwada,

Surkotda, Dholavira, Padri.

1. The Mature Harappan phase (2600 BCE-1900 BCE)

• During the Early Harappan phase, the society was still at a rural stage. But during the mature

Harappan phase, it advanced to the urbanisation stage and became one of the earliest urban

civilizations of the world.

Limitations of the Theory of Gradual Origin-

• Not all of the Early Harappan sites developed into mature Harappan sites.
• For example, in Cholistan (Ghaggar-Hakra) region, there were hundreds of the Early

Harappan sites but only three could transform into mature Harappan sites.

• Further, there are those 'mature' Harappan sites that do not yield an 'early' Harappan

occupational layer underneath.

• Many urban Harappan sites like Lothal, Desalpur, Chanhudaro, Ropar, Mitathal and

Alamgirpur etc. do not have an 'early' Harappan occupational layer below them.

• Moreover, important sites like Harappa and Mohenjo Daro do have an early Harappan layer

below them. But, there is some sort of discontinuity between two successive occupation

levels and their mutual relationship i.e. between the 'early' Harappan and 'mature' Harappan

phase is not clear.

• The theory of gradual origination also doesn't shine light on the unifying force/forces that

could mobilise resources on such a large scale so as to build a full fledged civilisation with

planned cities, extensive trading networks and centralised administration.

Characteristic Features of the Harappan civilisation-

• It was the first urban civilisation in the Indian subcontinent and it was contemporary to the

urban civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and China.

• It cropped up during the Chalcolithic period. But, as the Harappan people developed bronze

by mixing copper and tin, it is also associated with the Bronze Age.

• Normally agriculture and trade play important roles in Urbanisation. But in the context of

Harappan Civilisation, trade definitely played a more decisive role than agriculture. That's

why Urban Centers emerged even in those regions where practising agriculture was difficult

e.g. Sutkagen Dor and Sukta Koh in Balochistan.

• Town Planning- Theentirecity was planned and the civic infrastructure was impressive. Most

of the important towns were divided into two parts i.e. the Western part had a well-fortified

citadel which was often built on a raised platform and the Eastern part had a lower town.

■ The citadel area was meant for the ruling class and it consisted of some

important monuments and commoners were settled in the Eastern part.

• If we compare the standard of living of the Harappan people with other contemporary

civilisations,wenotethatthe Mesopotamian and Egyptianrulingclasslavishlyspentresources

on monuments but the ordinary people lived in huts or mud houses.

• On the other hand, the Harappan elites spent less on monuments and the people

enjoyed higher standards of life. They lived in the houses which were built from the

standardised burnt bricks. Thus, the Harappan ruling class had an egalitarian

approach.

• Scholarssuggestthatastatecontrolisnecessarytoattainsuchahighlevelofstandardisation.
• The Harappan people developed a scientific temper. This was visible in following areas-
• Harappan town planning was a rare example in their contemporary world. It proves

that the Harappan people had a good working knowledge of mathematics and

measurement e.g. bricks were standardised in almost all the Harappan sites, their

measurements were always in the ratio of 4:2:1.

• Harappan people were familiar with the science of astronomy.
• They had knowledge of copper and bronze forging.
• They were using standard weights and measures.
• They were familiar with the decimal system (higher weights) and binary system

(smaller weights) in calculation.

• They developed numerals and they used 16 and its multiples in measurements.

Economic Activities- Agriculture, Trade and Commerce

Agriculture and animal husbandry-

• Agriculture developed in certain areas where the land was fertile. The Harappan people were

using agrarian implements which were made from stone, copper and bronze.

• They used ploughs for cultivation. We have found evidence of a furrowed field from

Kalibangan in Rajasthan.

• The Harappans produced varieties of crops i.e. wheat, barley, peas, pulses, cotton etc. From

Gujarat, we find evidence of rice production as well.

• Animal rearing was an occupation which was practised for food production and other

purposes like wool, transportation etc. We infer the domestication of these animals on the

basis of their excavated bones and their representation in terracotta figures.

• The discovery of granaries from Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan gives a hint of the

channelisation of agrarian surplus towards cities.

Art and Craft-

• Acivilisationreachesuptotheurbanisationstagewiththehelpofrobustcraftbasedactivities

and trade. The Harappan people represented a complex trading community and the

backbone of their trade was their craft specialisation.

• They were efficient in producing the following items-
• Cotton goods e.g. evidenced from Mohenjo Daro
• Bead making e.g. workshops in Chanhudaro (Sindh), Lothal (Gujarat)
• Ivory works at Lothal
• Shell work at Lothal

Trade and Commerce -

Evidences of a developed trade and commerce network are-

• The use of standardised weights and measures.
• The use of a script.
• The evidence of boats and carts (from pictures on seals and toy carts).
• Harappan seals whichwerediscovered from the Persian Gulf, Ur and Nippur in Mesopotamia.
• Persian seals were found from Lothal. Mesopotamian seals were discovered from

both Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan.

• A Mesopotamian tablet dated 2350 BCE declares that merchants from Dilmun (Bahrain),

Magan (Oman) and Meluha (Harappa) anchor their boats at Mesopotamian ports.

Types of Trade

• Regional Trade-
• Movement of agrarian goods from villages to towns.
• Exchange of goods among different regions within the Indian subcontinent e.g. trade

with Rajasthan chalcolithic cultures for copper, Karnataka Neolithic cultures for gold

etc.

• External Trade- with the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Turkmenistan in Central Asia etc.

Routes of Trade

• Both land routes and sea routes were used. The evidence of boats and carts prove this fact.
• Important ports - Lothal, Rangpur and Rojdi (Gujarat), Sutkagendor, Sutka Koh, Balakot

(Balochistan).

Imported items -

• Shell from Baluchistan, Copper from Rajasthan, Gold from Kolar (Karnataka) and Afghanistan,

Silver from Afghanistan, Turquoise from Persia, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan etc.

Exported items -

• Shell and Ivory products from Gujarat, other types of finished goods of gold, black wood,

cotton and possibly grains.

Construction Works -

• Construction activities were regularly going on in the Harappan cities. It would have involved

a large number of labourers, architects, administrators etc.

• From Harappa and Mohenjodaro, we find evidence of coolie lines (workers apartment). It

means a large number of workers were regularly commissioned.

• Public buildings include the Granary, the Great Bath, an assembly hall in Mohenjodaro,

Dockyard from Lothal, Stadium from Dholavira etc.

Q- How far is it justified to say that the Mesopotamian trade played a decisive role in the rise of the

Harappan civilisation?

Such a statement is very difficult to substantiate due to the following factors-

• We don't have any solid data which can highlight the volume of trade between Meluha and

Mesopotamia.

• On the basis of new research, it has been proven that the Indian subcontinent was more

prosperousthan Mesopotamia.So,the Harappanpeoplemighthavedependedmoreon trade

within the Indian sub-continent than with outside.

Harappan Society and Culture -

• We don't have much knowledge about the Harappan society and culture as archaeological

evidence is not the right kind of source to shed light on society and culture. For that, we

require literary evidence. Unfortunately, the Harappan script has not been deciphered yet.

• However,on thebasisofthe seals, sealings, sculptures, terracotta figures etcwecan infer the

following propositions:

Society -

• The Harappan civilisation was at an advanced stage of development. Thus, social

stratificationseemspossible.Itmayhavebeendivided into thericherandpoorerclasses with

a full spectrum ranging from the rich merchant class to the poor labourers.

• Within the Harappan civilisation, we can trace different socio-economic groups.
• The scheme of town planning and governance gives the hint of an efficient ruling

class. So, there would have been a ruling class of bureaucrats and officers who

belonged to an elite group.

• Merchants, different professional groups, peasants etc. would have made up other

groups. These groups were associated with the production processes.

• The statue of a man with beard, unearthed from Mohenjodaro, hints towards the

presence of a priestly class as well.

■ The evidence of fire altars from Lothal and Kalibangan proves it further.

• Lastly we find evidence of the labour class as well.
• The condition of women vis-à-vis males and whether the society was matriarchal or

patriarchal are not clear. The Women figurines inspired some historians to conclude that it

represented a matriarchal society. But, latest anthropological narratives challenge this

common sense conclusion.

Religion-

• A Religion has two important parts i.e. metaphysics (ideology) and rituals. Due to the dearth

of literary evidence, we are unable to understand the metaphysical aspects of the Harappan

religion.Onthebasisofthearchaeologicalevidence,wegetsomeideaabouttherituals.Thus,

we get a keyhole view into the philosophy behind those rituals.

Features-

• The Harappan religion was polytheistic. Multiple cults prevailed e.g. water cult, tree cult,

serpent cult, fire cult, animal cult, worship of swastika etc.

• Actually the multiplicity of cults conforms to the diversified life of an urban culture

which was an amalgamation of different social groups.

• The Harappan cults were linked with production (fertility) e.g. the worship of male and

female sexorgans, the cultof mother goddess, the firealtars and the serpent cult,all of these

represent fertility and production- this view is based on the modern practices by modern

tribesand cultures. Infact,serpentstoodasanallegorical representationofsex,which inturn

is associated with fertility (production).

• The Harappan religion reflected the elements of 'Bhakti' and 'Animism'.
• In fact, idol worship was practised in the Harappan civilisation, although temples are

not visible. As idol worship is associated with the worship of an individual god, it

resembles the 'Bhakti' type of worship.

• Likewise, in the Harappan civilization, the use of amulets was widespread. It gives a

hint towards the idea of 'animism' prevailing there.

• The Harappan cults didn't vanish even after the decline of the Harappan civilisation. Rather,

they merged with the other Indian ways and ideas of worship and spirituality and later they

prepared the way for the rise of Hinduism.

Art and Architecture-

Art-

It was earlier believed that Harappans lagged behind the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians in terms

ofartisticexpression.Butonthebasisofrecentresearch,ithasbeenprovedthat the Harappanpeople

produced artifacts in larger quantities and they were quite diverse in nature.

• Seals- They were possibly used for making impressions on the mercantile goods. Most of the

seals were made of steatite stone.

• Normally, they were rectangular or square shaped. These seals bore some script on

them. On square shaped seals, animals were represented as well.

• Beads- These were meant for jewellery. Most of the beads were made of steatite, semi-

precious stones and coral while few others were made of metals as well.

• Bronze art- The Harappans produced bronze statues of humans as well as animals in large

numbers.

• Some of the bronze pieces are art marvels e.g. dancing girl from Mohenjodaro. The

Harappans used the 'Lost wax technique' to make bronze statues.

• Terracotta figurines- The Harappans produced large numbers of terracotta figurines

representing men, women, animals, birds etc.

• These figures were meant to be used either as idols or toys.
• Possibly, these figurines belonged to the people who came from the lower strata of

society. But, they reflect the Harappan expertise in making sculptures.

• Later, this art merged with the other common Indian art forms.
• Stone art- The Harappan people produced stone sculptures as well. They represented human

beings and animals in those sculptures.

• Unfortunately, nearly all the stone sculptures which so far have come to the light are

damaged. Still some statues-like that of the bearded priest from Mohenjodaro and

two statues from the Harappa representing the human anatomy- have a superb

quality.

Architecture-

• Harappan architecture is represented in public monuments and individual houses.
• As the Harappan ruling class didn't prefer to spend much on public monuments, the number

of public monuments is limited.

• On the other hand, the common people were enjoying higher standards of living than their

counterparts in other contemporary civilisations.

• So, a large number of burnt-brick houses for the common people is a unique feature of this

civilization.

Building materials- Mud bricks, burnt bricks (most commonly used) and stone.

Cementing material or mortars - Mud, Bitumen and gypsum.

Public buildings:

• Mohenjodaro- Assembly hall, the Great Bath, Granary (largest building).
• Harappa- 12 granaries (6-6 in two rows), surface area equal to that of the single granary at

Mohenjodaro.

• Dholavira - A stadium-like building.
• Lothal - A dockyard represented the largest piece of architecture.

Private Houses:

• The houses were made of burnt bricks- single storied or double storied.
• At Mohenjodaro, almost every house had a courtyard with a well inside.
• Stairs were built to go to the upper storey.
• Every house had a bathroom with a burnt-brick floor.
• A proper drainage system was installed in the houses which were connected to the main

drainage system in turn.

Decline of Harappan Civilisation:

There is a heated debate about the decline of the Harappan civilisation because-

• The Harappan script has not been deciphered yet.
• Even the archaeological evidence doesn't help to clarify this issue asmost of theexcavations

are vertical and not horizontal.

Various theories were propounded in this regard, which are as follows-

1. The Theory of Aryan invasion-

It was propounded by the British historian, Mortimer-Wheeler. He declares that the decline of the

Harappan civilization was sudden and catastrophic.

• In favour of his theory, he presented following evidences-
• He presented 26 human skulls with cut wounds -found at Mohenjodaro- as a sign of

a conflict.

• Likewise, he claimed that the skeleton in the 'Cemetery H' layer from Harappa

belonged to an invader group.

• As literaryevidence, hehas given referenceto the Rig Veda i.e. heidentifiestheterm

'Hariyupiya' and 'Purandar' with Harappa and breaker of forts (Indra) respectively.

But on the basis of recent research, scholars have come to the conclusion that the views of Mortimer

Wheeler were not convincing because-

• The archaeological evidence that he cited is not sufficient. The number of skeletons at

Mohenjodaro is too small and limited to only one location. Even a smaller number of those

deaths can be conclusively attributed to the violent wounds.

• The skeleton at the cemetery-H belongs to a different period.
• The literary evidence which he presented is not authentic as the Rig Veda was transferred in

the oral form for centuries and it was written at a much later period.

• There is a time gap of nearly 300-400 years between the decline of Harappan civilization and

the advent of Aryans in India.

• In fact, Mortimer Wheeler was representing an imperialistic view on Indian historiography.

By propounding the theory of Aryan invasion, he tried to justify British invasion of India.

That's why the whole debate about the decline of Harappan civilisation moved in other directions.

2- Decline due to Climatic and Environmental factors-

The theory of flood - John Marshall and S.R. Rao supported this theory.

• John Marshal traced some seven layers of flooding from Mohenjodaro.
• Likewise S.R. Rao found evidence of flooding at Lothal and Bhagtrav in Gujarat.

The theory of tectonic movement- M.R. Sahni differed with the view of a normal monsoon type of

flooding.

• According to him, this was a catastrophic inundation which was caused by the tectonic

movements.

• The Indus water was blocked due to the upliftment of a tectonic plate at Mohenjodaro. Due

to this, people vacated Mohenjodaro.

• The view of Sahni was approved by a U.S. hydrologist R.L. Raikes.

Growing desertification - H.T. Lambrick didn't accept this view.

• He argued that even if such a blockage was created, the river could make its way by cutting

through it.

• He gives 'Drought' as the reason behind the decline.
• Lambrikemphasisedthatearlier,River Sutlejand Yamunaweretributariesof the River

Ghaggar; later Sutlej shifted to join the Indus while the Yamuna joined the Ganges.

• Consequently, the River Ghaggar dried up creating an acute water shortage in the

region.

• Also, a botanist Gurdeep Singh studied pollen grains at Pushkar and Didwana (Rajasthan) and

has tried to establish that by 1900 BCE there was decline in the rainfall in this region.

Drifting away of the Monsoon- In 2012, a group of archaeologists studied the decline of Harappan

civilisation by excavating the Indian and Pakistani regions.

• According to this theory, the monsoon drifted away resulting in the decline of precipitation in

the region, thus resulting in decline of civilisation.

Ecological imbalance - Fairservis has highlighted the problem of ecological imbalance caused due to

the over exploitation of natural resources.

• Likewise, Vishnu Mitre has given a hint of the phenomenon of the excessive human

intervention in nature.

Decline of Mesopotamian trade - Recently, Sheeren Ratnagar has underscored the decline of

Mesopotamian trade and called it a major factor behind the decline of Harappan Civilisation. But,

there is no data to support this hypothesis.

3- Change of Character of Harappan Civilisation-

D.K. Chakravarty has given a new perspective to this debate.

• Accordingtohim,the Harappan Civilizationwasbasedonaproperbalancebetweenitsurban

and rural regions, agriculture and trade etc.

• But when it made an eastward shift gradually, it merged with less developed social groups

like peasants, shifting cultivators, hunter-gatherers etc.

• In association with the inhabitants of an urban civilization (Harappan people), these social

groups certainly advanced; but simultaneously Harappan inhabitants (civilisation) lost their

urban character.

Critical appraisal of the views on the decline of Harappan Civilisation:

As we have seen, different scholars have given different views while explaining the causes of decline

of civilisation.

• The earlier view of the Aryan invasion theory can't be substantiated, so it has lost its

relevance.

• But, while analysing other factors, we should be cautious of the fact that a generalised cause

will not do justice to all the regions

• e.g. The theory of flooding is not relevant for the sites like Sutkagendor and Sutkakoh

-which are situated in the desert area.

• Likewise, the theory of desertification can't be applied to sites like Alamgirpur in the

Gangetic basin.

• So we can conclude that, for the decline of Harappan sites, a single factor was not

accountable. Rather,different factors might have been responsible for the decline of the

different sites.

• When we observe the nature of decline and the time span of decline, we notice that these

were different for the different sites

• e.g. Mohenjodaro declined in 2100 BCE but Kalibangan and Banawali continued upto

1800 Bce.

• Likewise, the signs of stagnancy and exhaustion appeared at Mohenjodaro before

its final demise but Banawali and Kalibangan disappeared young.

• So, while discussing the nature of decline, we should also keep these facts in our mind.

Evaluation of the term 'Decline' of the Harappan civilisation-

• Earlier the term 'Decline' was understood as the end of the civilisation.
• But from the 1960 s onward, it is believed that the civilisation didn't end but it continued in

an altered form after its decline.

• So, now the term 'decline' means the decline of the urban phase only.
• The civilisation continued in its post urban phase.
• It came to be known as the Late Harappan culture.

Later Harappan Cultures (1900 BCE to 1300 BCE)

• They are supposed to have continued between 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE.
• Duringthis period,theelementsoflate Harappancultureswerevisibleintheregionsof Sindh,

Western Punjab- Bahawalpur, Eastern Punjab and Haryana, Kutch-Saurashtra and Ganga-

Yamuna Doab.

• Certain late Harappan cultures include the Jhukar Culture (Sindh), 'Cemetery H' culture

(Western Punjab-Ghaggar Hakra valley), Gandhara Grave Culture, Red Lustrous Ware culture

(Gujarat) etc.

Features of late Harappan culture-

• It represents the phase of decline of Harappan civilisation and its transformation from urban

to rural culture.

• Town planning was discarded.
• The use of standardised implements, weights and measure, seals, potteries etc. lost their

relevance.

• The number of settlements declined in its core region i.e. the triangle of Harappa-

Mohenjodaro-Bahawalpur. But on the other hand, the number of sites increased sharply in

the Eastern and Southern regions.

Significance of late Harappan culture-

• Although,the Harappanpeopleweregrowingbothkindsofcropsi.e.Rabiand Kharif;butthey

sowed both kinds of crops in the Rabi season only and in the same field.

• It is only in the late Harappan period that the concept of two cropping seasons

developed properly.

• It needed more land for cultivation as the crops had to be sown in different fields

alternatively and for the intervening period they had to leave the land fallow for

regaining fertility.

• It was due to this factor that the Harappan people made an eastward expansion in

search of better climate and more cultivable land.

• At Pirak (Balochistan), wheat and barley were sown as the Rabi crop and rice, millet,

sorghum were grown in the summer.

• Late Harappan people worked as an intermediary between the Harappan and the historical

phase.

• Infact, the late Harappan people carried some Harappan technology like copper and

bronzemaking,potter'swheeletc.andmadethesetechnologiesavailabletothenext

generation.

• Late Harappan people developed prosperous rural settlements and preserved the rural life.

In course of time it merged with the common Indian life.

• Late Harappanpeople preservedthereligiousideasandcults ofthe Harappancivilisationlike

the cult of mother goddess, Pashupati (Shiva), fire altar, serpent cult etc. Later, all these

elements merged into the religious life of Indian society. In this way, they prepared the way

for the rise of Hinduism in future.

Scenariointhe Indiansub-continentafterthedeclineof Harappancivilisation(1900 BCEto 500 BCE):

• Harappan civilization declined c. 1900 BCE.
• After the decline of the urban phase, the Harappan civilisation continued in the post-

urban phase in the form of Late Harappan cultures.

• Late Harappan cultures were chalcolithic in nature (not Bronze Age like Harappan).
• Separate Chalcolithiccultures werespreadthroughout Indiaduringtheperiod between 1900

BCE (after the decline of Harappan civilisation) and 1100 BCE (when use of iron started in the

Indian subcontinent).

• So the question arises, what is the difference between late Harappan cultures and other

Indian cultures of the time; as both were chalcolithic, and why we segregate few sites as late

Harappan cultural sites.

• Those chalcolithic sites which carried the legacy of the Harappan civilisation are

termed as the late Harappan cultural sites, others are categorised simply as the

chalcolithic cultural sites.

Distribution- The chalcolithic sites were scattered all over India. E.g. in the Gangetic basin- Senuar,

Taradih, Chirand, Sonpur etc. In Bengal- Pandu Rajar Dhibi and Mahisdal. In North East- Sarutaru,

Daojali Hading etc. In south India- Utnur (A.P), Paiyampalli (TN), Bramhagiri, Maski, Hallur, T. Narsipur

(Karnataka) etc.

• These Neolithic sites directly developed into the chalcolithic sites.
• If it is difficult to separate the Neolithic phase and the beginning of the use of the

copper at a particular site then it is known as the Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites, unlike

the Harappan sites which developed from the Neolithic (rural) to the copper-bronze

phase (urban) and then back to chalcolithic (rural) phase.

Whenever we observe the chalcolithic cultures between 1900 BCE and 1100 BCE in different parts of

Indian sub-continent we find following -

• Around 2400 BCE 'Ahar culture or Banas culture' developed in Rajasthan by the side of the

river Banas. For some time it was contemporary to the Harappan civilisation as well. It

continued upto 1400 BCE.

• Next is the 'Malwa culture' (1700 BCE to 1200 BCE). This culture flourished in Malwa and

nearby regions. Some of the chalcolithic sites in Maharashtra have occupational layers

belonging to the Malwa culture.

• Then, the 'Jorwe culture' appeared in Maharashtra region between 1400 BCE to 700 BCE.

Some regional cultures in the Gangetic basin-

• Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000 BCE to 1500 BCE)- Nearly 110 sites have come to light

in the upper Gangetic basin and nearby region which belong to this culture. It is associated

with the Late Harappan phase (copper phase).

• Painted Grey Wareculture(1500 BC to 500 BCE)-Itemergedafterthedeclineof OCPculture.

This culture is associated with both, the pre-iron phase (1500 BCE-1000 BE) and iron phase

(1000 BCE- 500 BCE). Nearly 750 sites of PGW culturehave come to the light. It corresponded

to the Vedic period of literature.

• Northern Black Polished Ware culture- It is a relatively more developed culture which

appeared around 800 BCE. It is associated with the iron phase, burnt bricks and

2 nd Urbanisation. This culture was spread over a vast region i.e. from Taxila in north-west to

Tamluk in West Bengal and Amravati in South India. This culture is also associated with the

Buddha age.

Occupation-

• The Chalcolithic people were leading a sedentary life.
• They were involved in agriculture and animal rearing.
• Wedon'thaveanyevidenceoftheuseofploughfromanychalcolithicsitebutstillthepeople

were producing more grains than their requirement.

• E.g. We have found evidence of a granary from a Chalcolithic site at Inamgaon in

Maharashtra.

• They were involved in the craft production as well and produced several varieties of pottery.

These potteries were used for cooking food as well as storing grains.

• Also, from Malwa culture occupational level at Inamgaon, we find some evidence of

spinning as well.

• Possibly, they were also involved in trade and commerce e.g. from certain sites we find

objects which were not locally available.

Society-

• Some sort of social division is visible. We can infer it on the basis of the burial system.
• Normally, the Chalcolithic people used to bury the dead either in the courtyard or

under thefloorofthe room. Thedead bodiesofkids were placed inan urnorpottery.

Also, they buried some essential goods with the body for use in the afterlife.

• On the basis of these grave goods, we can underline social differentiation.
• Apart from that, at the site of Inamgaon, we find a different type of settlement.
• The artisans were settled in the western region while the house of the chief was in

the centre. This also indicates some sort of social differentiation.