Mauryans

Mauryan Age (c. 321 BCE to 182 BCE)

Sources

1. Archaeological Sources

Inscriptions: Inscriptions pertaining to Mauryan history can be divided into three parts: pre-

Ashokan, Ashokan, and post-Ashokan inscriptions.

1. Two inscriptions from Shogaura (written on copper plate in Brahmi script and Prakrit

language) in Gorakhpur district and Mahasthan inscription (written on roughly circular stone in Brahmi script and Prakrit language) from Bogra district in Bangladesh are pre Ashokan inscriptions.

• Both deal with relief measures to be adopted during a famine.
• Piprahwa casket inscription may also be pre-Ashokan.

1. The Ashokan inscriptions consist of fourteen major rock edicts, minor rock edicts, seven

pillar edicts, minor pillar edicts and some inscriptions of miscellaneous nature.

• 14 major rock edicts (in some locations only some portions of the entire set has survived) have been found from 8 different locations at Kalsi (Dehradun), Mansehra (Hazara district,

NWFP, Pakistan), Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar), Girnar (Junagadh, Gujarat), Sopara (Thane, Mumbai), Erragudi (Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh), Dhauli (Puri, Orissa) and Jaguada (Ganjam, Orissa).

• The major rock edicts were perhaps later than the minor rock edicts.
• Minor rock edicts are considered to be the earliest. These are located in Bairat (Jaipur,

Rajasthan), Rupnath (Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh), Ahraura (Mirzapur), Gujjara (Datia, MP), Panguraria (Sehore, MP), Sasaram (Rohtas, Bihar), Maski, Gavimath and Palkigundu (Raichur, Karnataka),Nittur,Udegolam(Bellary,Karnataka),Brahmagiri,Siddhapur,Jatinga Rameshwar (Chitradurga, Karnataka), Bahapur villagenear Delhi, Erragudiand Rajula Mandagiri (Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh).

• Seven Major pillar edicts are located at Kosam (Kosambi) which is currently located at

Allahabad, Topra (Ambala) and Meerut (currently both located in Delhi), Rampurva (West Champaran/Betiah, Bihar), Lauriya Nandagarh (Betiah) and Lauriya Araraj (Motihari/ East Champaran, Bihar) and Kandahar.

• Normally major pillar edicts have been unearthed from the core region but Amaravati isanexceptionwhererecentlyapillarinafragmentedstatewithperhapssevenedicts

has been unearthed. It isbelieved that the pillar edicts are the latest among the three groups of Ashokan inscriptions.

• Minor pillar inscriptions includes schism edicts found at Kosambi (Allahabad), Sanchi (Raisen, MP) and Sarnath (Varanasi, UP); commemorative inscriptions found at Lumbini

(Rummindei) and Nigali Sagar (Bhairwa district, Nepal) and a donative inscription of one of Ashoka's queens on the Allahabad-Kosam pillar.

• The cave inscriptions have been found in the cave walls of the Barabar hills (Gaya district, Bihar).
• Other miscellaneous inscriptions include a bilingual inscription at Kandahar in Afghanistan, the Piyadassi inscriptions at Taxila and a broken inscription near Jalalabad in Afghanistan.
1. The Post-Ashokan inscriptions consist of the cave inscriptions of Nagarjuni hills in Bihar

which were engraved during the reign of Dasarath. It helps in the reconstruction of some aspects of the Mauryan provincial administration.

The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman of 150 CE mentions that the Sudarshan Lake was constructed from the time of Chandra Gupta Maurya till Ashoka.

It is safe to infer that many Ashokan inscriptions have gone missing as Fahien and Xuanzang have mentioned seeing pillars which can't be found today.

• The discovered major rock edicts are mostly located along the borders of his empire while the minor rock edicts have widest distribution with a noticeable concentration in the Karnataka area.
• The major pillar edicts are mostly found from North India. Theinscriptionsmostlyconsistofexplanationsof Dhammaandhow Ashokasoughttospread the message of Dhamma.

It becomes quite clear from these inscriptions that Ashoka was a Buddhist in his personal conviction.

References to administration, society and economy of the Mauryan period are fewer.

Coins: The Mauryan coins are punch-marked (mostly silver and fewer copper) coins.

• These coins have been discovered from North-West India, the Gangetic valley and the Northern part of the Deccan.
• The meaning of the motifs on these coins is hard to explain.
• The large-scale availability of such coins show that the economy - particularly trade and commerce - was in good shape.
• Arthashastra mentions silver coins (panas) and copper coins (mashakas). Artefacts: The Mauryan artefacts include NBPW (Northern Black polished wares) as well as burnt bricks.
• These help us in the reconstruction of contemporary economy and technology.
• Mauryan terracotta has been found from Pataliputra to Taxila giving a glimpse of contemporary folk art as well as common beliefs.
1. Literary sources:

It can be divided into indigenous literature and foreign accounts.

• The indigenous literature can be further divided into two categories - religious literature and secular literature.
• The former includes Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina literature.
• Religious literature: Among religious literature, Buddhist literature is the most important.
• The Jatakastories(oneofthefifteenbooksof the Khudakka Nikayaofthe Sutta Pitaka, containing stories of the previous lives of Buddha, were composed roughly between

3rd century BCEand 2nd century CE)revealabroadpictureofthecontemporarysocio-

economic conditions.

• The Digha Nikaya exhibits the influence of Buddhist ideas on the political sphere.
• The Sri Lankan chronicles, the Dipavamsa (c. 4 th 5 th century) and Mahavamsa (c. 5 th century), are important because they work as cross-references.
• For instance, it was the Dipavamsa which confirmed for the first time that the term 'Piyadassi' is synonymous with 'Ashoka'.
• Further, it covers the measures taken by Ashoka to propagate Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
• It also contains accounts of Buddha's life, the Buddhist councils etc.
• Milindapanho(aconversation between Indo-Greekking Menanderand Buddhistsaint Nagsena on mainly moral-philosophical issues) also containssome information on the Mauryan dynasty.
• The Tibetan Lama Taranath's accounts (c. 16 th century CE) also provides a good deal of information.

The Jaina work 'Parishishta Parvan', written by Hemachandra in 12 th c. CE in Sanskrit gives some information on the last phase of Chandragupta's reign, while it mainly deals with the earliest Jain teachers.

Among the Brahmanical literature, Puranas are an important source of information for the period.

• It gives us a list of Maurya kings which is interspersed with the religious teachings.
• However, this list varies from one Purana to the other.
• Also, Puranas were compiled very late and frequent interpolations appear in these accounts.
• Secular Works:

In secular works, we can mention the Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta (a 5 th century CE historical drama), Rajtarangini of Kalhana and Harshacharita of Banabhatta. Though they were composed much later, these refer to the Mauryan period in retrospect..

But, the outstanding secular work is Arthashastra by Kautilya.

• Some scholars consider it to be a work of the 3 rd century CE, but similarities between the terms used in the Arthashastra and the Ashokan edicts suggest that it was the contemporary of the Mauryan period.
• The importanceof Arthashastralies inthefactthat it givesdetailed information about the Mauryan society, polity and economy.
• Foreign Accounts:

The most important foreign account is the 'Indica' of Megasthenes. Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus Nikator (successor of Alexander in the Persian-Afghanistan Area) in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.

• The original book has not survived but has been referred to by many Greek and Roman scholars like Diodorus, Strabo, Pliny and Arrian, in their respective literary works.
• This work basically deals with the court life and town administration. But there are certain limitations.
• Subjectivity and prejudices might have crept in, which in turn reduce the reliability of the work.
• As a royal guest Megasthenese'sexposureto Indian societyand geographymust have been limited. We also don't know how long he stayed in the Mauryan court.
• Also, Megasthenes was a foreigner. It is possible that he may have at times been confused between the practical and theoretical aspects of a matter.
• For instance, Megasthenese's description of Indian society is almost utopian.
• His descriptions of Indian society as divided into the seven castes, non- existence of slavery etc. have been considered to be figments of his imagination.
• He proclaims that all land belongs to the King and Indians did not know writing.
• Often,incredibleaccounts likeunicorns,menwithdog-likeheads,golddigging ants etc. are mentioned.
• Such assertions reduce the utility of the Indica in comparison to Arthashastra, whenever there is a divergence between the two sources, e.g. fortification, city governance, military administration and taxation etc.
• The later Greek and Roman authors took only those bits from the Indica which they thought would intrigue their readers and left out parts which might have helped the modern historians.
• Also, we don't know whether they directly assessed the Indica or they were also using it indirectly. It is as if the Greeks were seeing India through double filters.

Further, accounts of Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang throw some light on the Mauryan period.

Limitations

The literary evidence suffers from severe drawbacks such as lack of adequate contemporary support, problems of authenticity and their dating (when they were exactly composed?).

The Buddhist, Jaina and other religious texts have a religious bias in their writing. E.g. They tend to inflate or undermine the ancestry of Mauryas based on their own views of the Mauryan Kings and whether they patronised these religions.

Kautilya and Arthashastra

Kautilyaisbelievedtobe Chandragupta Maurya'sministerwhohadhelpedhimtooverthrow the Nanda dynasty.

The Arthashastra is one of the most important sources for reconstructing ancient Indian economy, legal institutions, social structures, and polity.

• Although the work is basically concerned with political theories and statecraft, it also throws ample light on contemporary society.
• The additional advantage of this text is that it not only elaborates the views of the author but also cites the opinions and views on different political theories by the preceding scholars.
• At least 5 schools of political thinking and 13 individual political thinkers have been cited on various political problems.
• The treatise contains 15 Adhikaranas (books).
• The basic style of writingis such that each section begins by posing a problem using short sentences (Sutras) and then commenting on it (Tika).
• The first five books deal with internal administration; next eight with Inter-state affairs and the last two cover miscellaneous issues.
• The entire text is framed from the perspective of a middle sized kingdom of an ambitious king who seeks to strengthen his kingdom internally and expand his kingdom into an empire.
• The text does not mention Mauryan kings and their empire.
• This is perhaps because it is a theoretical work for an up-start king and not a memoir of an administrator.
• Many scholars think that this work on statecraft may have been used as a guide in the affairs of the state.
• Kautilya is mentioned as the sole author in the Arthashastra itself. Later works like Nitisara of Kamandaka support this view.
• However, some historians argue against the view that the entire Arthashastra was written by one person named 'Kautilya'.
• They argue that the existence of the person, Kautilya, cannot be corroborated from other contemporary literary sources like Indica and Mahabhashya.
• Also, the authorship attributed to Kautilya in Arthashastra may have been a later interpolation.
• That such an intense and condensed work on statecraft may not be work of a person involved in day to day administration is also argued.
• Though these arguments are interesting, none of them convincingly refute the Kautilyan authorship of Arthashastra.
• E.g. Indica exists today only in the references made in other works and Mahabhashya is a work on grammar. So, how much can we rely on them to proclaim or refute the person of Kautilya?
• References to the Sangha politics, Ajivikas etc. do locate it in the Mauryan period.
• Also, the administrative structure outlined in the book is uniquely Mauryan.

Foundation of Mauryan Empire It has been suggested by D.D. Kosambi that the immediate and unexpected by-product of Alexander's invasion of the North-West was that "it hastened the Mauryan conquest of the whole country."

• He has argued that it was not difficult for the Mauryan army under Chandragupta to conquer this region since the tribes of North-west had already been weakened.

Accordingtoclassical Greeksources,Chandraguptaissupposedtohaveevenmet Alexander and advised him to attack Magadha which was under the unpopular rule of the Nandas.

• Both Indian and classical Greek sources suggest that Alexander's retreat created a vacuum.
• Most of the Gangetic Valley was already under the control of Magadha.
• Therefore, it was not difficult for Chandragupta to subdue the Greek garrisons left there.
• However, it isnot clear whether he did thisafter his accession to the throne of Magadha or before it.
• Some scholarsdatehisaccession to 324 BCE but it isgenerallyaccepted as 321

Bce.

According to the Indian tradition Chandragupta was ably assisted by Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta.

• The Arthashastra is attributed to him.
• He was supposedly well-versed not only in the political principles of warfare and consolidation, but also in the organisation of state and society.

Chandra Gupta Maurya (321/322 BCE to 300 BCE)

Thoughtheearlyyearsof Chandragupta'sreignarelittle known, mosthistoriansassigneither a 'lower caste' or a tribal origin to the Maurya family.

According to some accounts, Chandragupta was the son of the last Nanda king by a "low born" woman called Mura and the family name Maurya came from her name.

Both Indian and Classical sources agree that Chandragupta overthrew the last of the Nanda kings and occupied his capital Pataliputra.

• This success is linked with his accession to the throne c. 321 BCE. One of the major achievements of Chandragupta Maurya was when he engaged Seleucus Nikator, who ruled over the area west of the Indus c. 305 BCE.
• There was a war which Chandragupta supposedly won and peace was concluded (c.

303 Bce).

• Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus in return for 500 elephants.
• A marital alliance was also concluded.
• Further, Seleucus sent an ambassador, Megasthenes, to the court of Chandragupta.
• This means that the territorial foundation of the Mauryan Empire had been firmly laid in the Indus and Gangetic plains during Chandragupta's reign.

Bindusara (c. 300 BCE to 273/272 BCE)

Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, ascended the throne c. 300 BCE. Comparatively little is known about him from either Indian or Classical Greek sources.

• To the latter, he is known as 'Amitrachotus'.
• They also inform us that he had contacts with the Seleucid king of Syria, Antiochus I, whom he requested to send sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist.

Though Bindusara is called the "slayer of foes", his reign is not well documented.

• Taranath mentions that he was the master of the land between the two seas.
• This may indicate the victory over the Deccan or suppression of a revolt.
• Therefore, the extent of his conquests can only be gauged by looking at the map of the Ashoka's empire, who in turn conquered Kalinga (Orissa). His religious learnings were perhaps towards the Ajivikas.

Buddhist sources suggest Bindusara's death around 273-272 B.C.

• After his death there was a struggle for succession among his sons for about four years.
• Bindusara, according to Divyavadana, wanted Susima to be crowned but Ashoka was supported by the ministers, especially a minister named Radhagupta.
• According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, Ashoka killed his 99 brothers and spared one, Tissa. Ashoka was crowned Bindusara's successor c. 269-268 BCE.

The extent of Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire was unique in many ways.

• Firstly, it was possibly the largest empire in the Indian subcontinent.
• It was controlling some regions in Afghanistan which British always aspired to possess but they never succeeded.
• Secondly, the Mauryan Empire became an ideal for all the later empires in the Indian subcontinent.
• Thirdly, the Mauryan Empire gave actual shape to the idea of 'Jambudvipa'. We have both archaeological and literary evidence to study the expansion of the Mauryan Empire.

The story of Mauryan expansion starts with Chandragupta Maurya.

• Chandragupta Maurya possibly captured the region between the rivers Beas and Indus by exploiting the confusion caused by the withdrawal of Alexander.
• The Mudrarakshasha also mentions the success of Chandragupta Maurya against King Aambhi of Taxila.
• Furthermore, on the basis of major rock edicts unearthed from Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra, it is accepted that Mauryas were controlling the region of North West India.
• Then, from the Mudrarakshasa, we also come to know that Chandragupta Maurya dethroned Dhanananda and captured Pataliputra in c. 322 BCE.
• It means that he captured the region up to the river Godavari in the South.
• It might be possible that the conquest in North-West preceded the conquest in Ganga valley.
• Greek sources inform us of a war between Chandragupta and Seleucus Nikator, the Syrian Emperor.
• Chandragupta got the region of Kabul, Kandahar, Balochistan and Herat.
• The Mauryan Empire extended up to Hindu Kush range in the North-West and the Syrian Empire became its western neighbour.
• Mauryas also controlled Central India.
• On the basis of Buddhist sources, we come to know that Ashoka was the Governor of Ujjain before becoming the King.
• He took the title of 'Ujjain Karmoli'.
• Mauryan control is testified on the basis of Ashokan inscriptions discovered from central India.
• For example, the minor rock edicts at Gurjara, Rupnath, Panguraria
• and a minor pillar edict from Sanchi establish Mauryan control over central India.
• Furthermore, Mauryas also controlled the Himalayan foothills as well as the upper and middle Gangetic basin.
• A number of inscriptions from these regions prove this.
• For example, inscriptions of Rummindei, Nigali Sagar, Kalsi, Rampurva, Lauriya Areraj and Lauriya Nandangarh etc. testify that this region was under the control of Mauryas.
• Above all, it is from this region that we trace the major pillar edicts of Ashoka.
• The Mauryan Empire expanded up to Bengal in the East.
• From Buddhist sources, we come to know that Ashoka travelled up to Tamralipti to see off his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who were travelling to Sri Lanka.
• Furthermore, we have unearthed Chandragupta Maurya's rock edict from Mahasthan (Bangladesh).
• Likewise Mauryas also controlled Gujarat and Maharashtra in Western India.
• From Gujarat we have unearthed archaeological evidence e.g. Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman.
• It informs us that under Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka, Pushyaguptaand Tushaspa,respectively,weregovernorsof Kathiawar.
• A major rock edict of Ashoka has also been unearthed from Girnar.
• Discoveryofamajorrockedictof Ashokafrom Soparaproves Mauryancontrol over the western region of Maharashtra.
• It is unclear whether it was Chandragupta Maurya or Bindusara who conquered peninsular India. But it is beyond doubt that the peninsular India up to the region of

Brahmagiri was under the Mauryan control.

• For example, from Yerragudi in Andhra, one major edict and one minor rock edict have come to light.
• Likewise, a number of minor rock edicts such as Nittur, Udegolam, Gavimath, Palkigundu, Brahmagiri Maski etc. have been unearthed from Karnataka region.
• Recently a major rock edict of Ashoka has come to light from Sannati in Karnataka.
• Kalinga, roughly the present day state of Orissa, still had to be brought under Mauryan control.
• It had a strategic importance as it was situated on the route to South India, both by land and sea.
• Ashoka himself in the Major Rock Edict XIII describes his conquest of Kalinga which supposedly had taken place during the 8 th year of his rule. Mauryan Administration

Introduction

The Mauryan state with its centre in Magadha region was firmly established by the 3 rd century BCE.

• It had a vast territory to control and had an efficient administrative apparatus for maintaining this control.
• This administrative apparatus was layered i.e. administration of the core region (Magadha) of the empire, regional centres and their peripheral areas.

The sources for the study of Mauryan administration have their own limitations.

• The most important source, i.e. Arthashastra, wasperhapsnot written entirely within the Mauryan period.
• Also, it speaks from the perspective of a kingdom aspiring to become an Empire.
• The references of Indica in later Greek-Latin writing are fragmentary and full of discrepancies.
• Ashokan inscriptions mainly focus on Dhamma and references to the actual administration are few and far between.
• Other archeological sources like coins are not helpful either. The Mauryan Empirehadadministrativelevelslikethe central,provincial,districtandfinally village level administration. All these levels had their own administrative units.

The Central administration can be classified under following heads:

I. The King II. The Council of Ministers and Bureaucracy III. Army IV. Espionage network V. Law and justice VI. Revenue Administration VII. Public Works The King was the supreme authority of the state.

Arthashastra beseeches the King to uphold the social order based on Varna and Ashrams.

The King is called the 'Dharmapravartaka' (upholder/promulgator of social order).

All basic policy matters as well as crucial decisions were taken by the King.

• Arthashastra forthrightly mentions that if the traditional law (Shastras) holds a different point of view from that of the King's law over an issue, it was the King's law which prevailed.

The Arthashastra also lays down three basic pre-conditions for successful administration of the empire by the King:

1. He should pay equal attention to all matters.
2. He should remain vigilant and prepared for taking actions or corrective measures.
3. He should always discharge his duties.

By the time of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire had consolidated its position.

• An important development in the King's position by Ashok's time was the emergence of a paternal attitude towards his subjects as evident from the Dhauli and Jaguada inscription, in which he says that all subjects are his children.

There is no doubt that Ashoka maintained the welfare of the people as the primary goal of administration but he was an absolute monarch in terms of wielding political power.

• By adopting the title 'Devanampiya' (beloved of the Gods), Ashoka emphasised the connection between kingship and divinity, perhaps even to the extent of excluding the intermediaries, i.e. the priestly class.
• This may indicate that the King was now exercising his authority in religious matters also. Council of Ministers: The Arthashastra as well as the Ashokan inscriptions refer to a Council of Ministers (Mantrin Parishad).

The Arthashastra mentions that the state's work cannot be carried out without assistance.

Similarly, the Major Rock Edicts mention the functions of the Council.

• Major Rock Edict III implies that the Parishad was expected to ensure that new administrative measures were carried out by different categories of officials.
• Major Rock Edict VI mentions that the ministers can discuss King's policy during his absence, suggest amendments and decide upon any important matter which the King

has left to them. Yet, the Council had to report its opinion to the King immediately.

The power of the Council might have varied from time to time; yet its primary role was advisory in nature as the final authority vested with the King.

There was no fixed number of ministers and Kautilya mentions that it should be decided according to the need.

• But he opined that a large council is beneficial for the King. He has also listed out the issues on which the King should consult his ministers. These included,
• Consultation on how to start the work which the state wants to undertake.
• To determine the manpower and finances necessary to carry out these works.
• To determine the areas in which new initiatives should be carried out.
• Finding solutions to deal with calamities etc. Amatyas were civil servants who filled the highest administrative and judicial appointments.

Their role was very important.

The Central administration was conducted by Superintendents or Adhyakshas who looked after various departments. Kautilya gives an account of nearly 27 Adhyakshas.

• The Akshapataladhyaksha was the Accountant-General.
• The Sitadhyaksha was the superintendent of the cultivation of royal lands.
• The Akaradhyaksha was the superintendent of mining.
• Lavanyadhyaksha was the salt superintendent who maintained the royal monopoly on salt production.
• Navadhyaksha was the Superintendent of Ports.
• The Panyadhyaksha was the controller of commerce.
• The Sulkadhyaksa was the collector of customs and tolls.
• The Suradhyaksha was the Superintendent of Excise.
• Pautavadhyaksha was the superintendent of weights and measures.
• The Maudradhyaksha was the superintendent of the mint etc. Army: The size of Chandragupta's army was large.
• According to Pliny's account, it consisted of 9000 elephants, 30000 cavalry and 6000 infantry.
• Plutarch's account refers to 6000 elephants, 80000 horses, 20000 foot soldiers and 8000 war chariots.

These accounts may be exaggerated but the retreat of Seleucus, detailed account of army administration in Arthashastra and the violent Kalinga war in Ashoka'stime, all point towards a large and well organised military set up under the Mauryas.

According to Megasthenes, the branches of the army consisted of

• Infantry
• Cavalry
• Elephants
• Chariots
• Transport
• A naval fleet. According to Megasthenes, each branch was looked after by a committee of 5 members.

Kautilya has referred to 'Chaturangabala' (i.e. infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants) as the main components of the army, each under a commander.

• Besides these, he also mentions medical services to the army. Espionage: The Mauryan administration had a well-knit system of espionage. The main tasks of the spies involved:
• Keeping an eye on ministers,
• Reporting on government officials,
• Collecting impressions of public opinion, and
• Finding out the secrets of foreign rulers etc.

Judicial Administration: In order to maintain the social order, smooth functioning of administration, and a steady flow of revenues to the state, an orderly legal system was established under the Mauryas.

The Arthashastra contains codes listing punishments for a vast range of offences including violation of marriage laws, murder, adulteration, wrong weights, etc.

There were various kinds of courts to try the offenders or settle disputes at various levels.

• If the Gramikas had judicial powers at the village level, there were other courts at the Janapada level and the centre.

Two kinds of courts are mentioned in the Arthashastra:

• Dharmasthiya i.e. courts which decided personal disputes.
• Kantak Shodhan i.e. courts which decided upon criminal matters. The king was the ultimate upholder of Dharma and held the supreme judicial power.

Accordingto Megasthenes the crime ratein Mauryan India was not veryhigh. But the range of punishments mentioned in the Arthashastra indicates that breach of law and crime were not uncommon in the Mauryan social fabric.

Revenue Administration: State revenues were derived from various channels during the Mauryan Period.

Kautilyahaslisteddifferent sourcesfrom where revenueflowedintothestatetreasury which was looked after by an official called 'Sannidhata'. For example:

• Income from the fortified cities (Durga): The cities collected revenues in the form of fines, sales tax (Shulka), excise tax on sale of liquor and a kind of income tax imposed on the rich etc. (The Arthashastra lists 21 such taxes collected in the Durga)
• Incomefromrural areas:Therevenuesfrom the rural areaswere appropriatedby the state in the form of income from crown lands (Sita), land revenue (Bhaga) from cultivators, etc.
• Income from mines: As all the mines were under the control of the state, mineral wealth was a regular source of income for the state.
• Income from irrigation works: Taxes on orchards, ferry charges etc.
• Income from herds of animals.
• Income from forest areas and forest produce.
• Income from trade routes: Taxes were levied on merchants travelling by road or waterways, taxes on exports and imports, etc.

Public Works: The Mauryas took a keen interest in public works. The accounts of

Megasthenes and the Arthashastra refer to these works

1. The state took considerable interest in irrigation because it was a potential source of

revenue.

• Megasthenes mentioned officials who supervised irrigation. There are references to various modes of irrigation like dams, ponds, canals etc. in the Arthashastra.
• There were certain regulations for the use of water resources and violating these was an offence.
• The state also encouraged people to repair dams on their own initiative and land revenue remissions were granted for this.
• In the inscription of Saka King Rudradaman, (c. 2 nd century CE), pertaining to the repairofthe 'Sudarshan Lake', it ismentioned that thislake wasoriginallyconstructed during Chandragupta's times.
1. There are many references to the medical professionals of various kinds like physicians

(Chikitsakah), midwives (Garbhavyadh) etc.

• From Ashokan inscriptions, we come to know that medical treatment and medicines were available to both men and animals.
1. The state also helped its citizens during natural calamities like floods, famines etc.

4.The Arthashastramentionsthatthekingshouldlookafterorphans,olddestitutewomen, etc.

• To what extent these measures were actually carried out is a matter of speculation.
1. An important aspect of public works was laying down and repairing roads and opening

inns.

Thus, we can say that the state spent a certain amount from its revenues on the public works which must have increased during the time of Ashoka due to his concern for public welfare and his paternal attitude towards his subjects.

Certain other areas of administration also came under the purview of central administration.

• However, in many cases like public welfare works, their implementation depended on various local administrative units which must have enjoyed considerable degrees of autonomy.

Provincial Administration: The Provincial administration was headed by a Kumara/ Aryaputra (royal prince) who governed as the King's representative.

• The Kumara was in turn assisted by Mahamatyas/Mahamatras and a council of ministers.
• The council of ministers at the provincial level not only acted as a check on the Kumara but it had direct relations with the king sometimes.
• Ashokan inscriptions mention Mahamatyas which had judicial roles also.
• From Ashokan edicts we get to know four provincial capitals - Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north).
• Certain areas within these provinces may have been administered by minor rulers.
• E.g. The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman mentions Tushaspa, a Yavana Raja (a ruler of Greek origin), as a governor of Junagadh area during the time of Ashoka.
• The same inscription, however, says that a Vaishya, Pushyagupta, was the provincial governor during Chandragupta Maurya's rule. District and Village level Administration: The administrative set up at the district level controlled a number of villages and each village had its own administrative unit in turn.
• The important officials at the district level were Pradeshika, Rajuka and Yukta.
• The Pradeshika was the overall in-charge of the district- supervising revenue collection and maintaining law & order within his domain.
• Rajuka was the surveyor and assessor of the land.
• Yukta possibly assisted Rajuka and Pradeshika in some sort of secretarial way.
• There were also checks and balances on the powers of each category of officials.
• At times, the King was in direct touch with these officers.
• For example, in the 4 th Pillar Edict Ashoka granted "independent authority" to the Rajukas to carry out some of his instructions in matters of public welfare.
• He also vested certain powers in them which they may not have had earlier.
• The Ashokanedicts,however,donotthrowmuchlightonthevillageadministration.
• But there are references to this lowest unit of administration in the Arthashastra.
• It appears that local people were appointed in official positions and assisted by fellow village elders.
• The term for such officials is 'Gramikas'.
• The village level set up must have varied according to local conditions.
• The villages had a certain amount of autonomy in administering their affairs.
• We find references to the Gopas and Sthanikas as the officers which operated at the intermediate level between district and village.
• Sthanikassupposedlycollectedrevenueandfunctionedundertheauthorityof his immediate superior i.e. Pradeshika.
• The Gopa was some sort of accountant who was supposed to maintain accounts of the following:
• Demarcating village boundaries.
• Maintaining records of lands used for various purposes.
• Recording income and expenditure of people, and
• Recording taxes, revenues and fines etc.

City Administration: Megasthenes has given a vivid description of administration in Palibothra (Pataliputra). This account, though different from the one given in the Arthashastra, helps us in understanding the city administration.

• According to this account, the city council was divided into six-sub councils or committees and each committee had five members each.
• However, this is suspiciously similar to the military organisation also given by Megasthenes.
1. The first committee looked after industry and crafts. Its functions included

inspection of production centres, fixing wages, etc.

1. The second committee looked after the foreigners. Its functions included

arrangingfortheirfood,lodging,comfort,securityetc.Itmayhavekeptaneye on their activities also.

1. The third committee's work was registration of births and deaths.
2. Looking after trade and commerce. The functions of the fourth committee

included inspection of weights and measures, controlling the market etc.

1. The fifth committee inspected the sale of manufactured goods and kept a

strict watch to distinguish between new and second-hand goods.

1. The sixth committee collected taxes on the goods sold. The rate usually

being 1/10 th.

The Arthashastra mentions the Nagaraka (city superintendent) who was responsible for the law and order in the city.

• He was assisted by two subordinate officials, the Gopa and the Sthanika.
• There is some confusion between these two and the officials at the intermediate level between the district and villages. The Arthashastra also refers to a variety of activities undertaken by city administration, regulations related to these activities and penalties for the breach of such regulations. These included:
• Sanitation and water sources
• Checking adulteration
• Watching over inns and
• Precautions against fire etc. The extensive nature of Mauryan administration has been reflected in Kautilya's Arthashastra.
• But it should be noted that Arthashastra simply highlighted the Ganga valley and not the remote areas where the development of a uniform administrative structure was not possible due to the constraints on transport and communication.

Limitations of centralization during the Mauryan rule

An uncritical reading of the Arthashastra misleads one to assume a high degree of centralisation in the Mauryan Empire.

Another extreme view propounded by historians like Gerard Fussman is that the authority of Ashoka was merely limited to the religious affairs as reflected in his incessant efforts to preach through his edicts.

• This view gives too much importance to the contemporary transport and communication backwardness which would thwart any sort of centralisation.

Given the vastness of the empire, significant decentralisation of authority is inevitable but we should remember that Mauryan state certainly had some elements of centralisation

• e.g.appointmentofkeyprovincialofficials,receivingrevenuetributesfromprovinces, hosting royal armed forces at strategic locations in the empires, imposing rules which increase the ease of doing business between the constituent units of the Empire.

Romila Thapar has taken a nuanced stand after modifying her previous proposition.

• She has divided the empire into metropolitan, core and peripheral areas.
• Magadha was the metropolitan zone where we can presume the highest degree of centralisation.
• The coreareaincluded other states,important tradingcentres andareas of incipient state formation. These other states may have been conquered by the Mauryas.
• For them, administrative centralisation was necessary only to the extent which was necessary in order to consolidate the Mauryan control over them.
• Important trade centres like ports, craft production centres, strategically important mines etc. must have received greatercentral attention in order to appropriate more resources, even if they were located in a far off region.
• Areas of incipient state formation were the areas where the socio-economic developments were not deep enough to create enough surplus that would sustain an independent state.
• They usually remain inside the empire on account of this politico-
• military inferiority.
• Often, they overthrow the yoke of the centre if they achieve enough
• surplus and encounter a weak centre.
• The periphery includes the pre-state societies, which were in transition between a states based polity and a tribal polity.
• These societies, like forest dwellers, hill tribes, inhabitants of rugged terrain etc. naturally enjoyed a greater degree of internal autonomy when it came to managing their own affairs.
• However, they had to meet the central demands for revenue, resources and manpower.
• The distance from Metropolitan and provincial capitals varied the extent of control over these societies. Mauryan Society We come to know about the social structure of Maurya period from three different sources i.e. 'Indica' of Megasthenes, Buddhist texts & Kautilya's Arthashastra.

Megasthenes has divided Mauryan society in 7 occupation based groups but mistakenly called them as 7 classes (genos).

• Here, he had appropriated the method of Herodotus who had earlier divided the Egyptian society into 7 groups.
• However, he appears to be much closer to understanding the prevailing social order when he said that people in India could not marry outside their genos and practise someone else's occupation.

On the other hand, the Buddhist texts mention 4 Varnas but with a changed hierarchy by putting 'Khatiya' above 'Babhan', while 'Vessa' and 'Suda' still continued on their earlier position.

Kautilyashowstheold Brahmanic prejudice in hisapproach andemphasises onthe four-fold Varna system with privileges for Brahmins.

• But, when we compare the Kautilyan approach with the approach of 'Dharma Sutras', the difference between the two becomes obvious.
• In comparison to the various Dharma Sutras, 'Arthashastra' definitely had a lenient approach towards the social order.
• Unlike Dharma Sutras, 'Arthashastra' is soft toward shudras.
• Kautilya prefers to refer to shudras as 'Arya' and he asserts that
• shudras can't be enslaved. He encourages their active involvement in agriculture.
• Also, Arthashastra is a bit lenient towards women.
• It respectfully deals with 'Ganikas' (Prostitutes). According to Arthashastra, they were a source of the royal income and they were patronised by the state.
• Above all, Kautilya was pragmatic enough to give social acceptance to all the 8 types of marriages including the 4 'adharma' types of marriages.
• He believed that the 'adharma' types of marriages are rare cases and if such marriagesarenot given social acceptance thenthe offspringof such marriages have to undergo inhumane suffering.
• The reason behind the differences in the approaches of these two texts was their respective priority.
• As the name suggests, the main objective of 'Dharma Sutras' was to strictly maintain the social norms and traditions.
• Thesenormswerebasedon the Varnadivided societywhich wasbased inturn on the dominance of upper Varnas and Males.
• But the priority of 'Arthashastra' was different.
• Theacquisitionof Artha(resources)wasthemainobjectiveofthistext
• so that a powerful monarchical state could be created.
• Thus, Kautilya was an innovator and his policy was guided by the politico-economic exigencies of the time.
• Due to this, 'Arthashastra' dealt with contemporary society in a different way. Mauryan Economy The archaeological and literary evidence indicate that the Mauryan period was one of an expanding economy in all sectors.
• The expansion of the economy was the result of interactions among various factors likedevelopmentinruralagriculturalproductivity,theemergenceofiron-basedcraft production by specialised labour and artisans and trade.
• From the time of Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, the strong army ensured internal security and protection from foreign aggression.

The Mauryan economy was a classic model of state controlled economy which followed the emergence of an empire. State participated in agriculture, industries and trade.

• Thestatenotonlycontrolledandsupervisedtheeconomicactivitiesbut alsoprovided the needed infrastructure.
• This necessitated the employment of a large bureaucracy and a well-stocked treasury for large outlays.
• Consequently, all segments of society were taxed and fines were imposed even for minor offences. Rural Economy: The rural economy was developed by establishing new settlements and rehabilitation of decaying ones by drafting surplus settlers from over-populated areas.
• The shudras, who worked as slaves and hired labourers, were transported to these new areas.
• They were given land, tax exemptions and other concessions by way of supplying cattles, seeds and money by the state. Agriculture: Megasthenes states that all the land belonged to the king and it was cultivated by the farmers for the king.
• However, historians are of the opinion that Megasthenese's view is biased as the various texts quoted on this matter refer to the king as the protector of land and not the owner.

In the Jatakas, we hear of terms like 'Gahapatis' and 'Gramabhojakas' who appear to be in control of a lot of land.

• The precise function of the 'Gahapatis' remains uncertain.
• Romila Thapar is of the opinion that the Gahapatis were a class of entrepreneurs responsible for the development of the agricultural village in new areas.

The land fell into two distinct categories

(i) Land whose cultivators paid traditional taxes to the government; and (ii) The Sita land, settled as well as farmed, directly under the crown supervision.

• The principal tax was the royal share in the harvest (Bhaga), amounting to perhaps 1/6 th.
• During times of emergency, this was raised to 1/4 th of the produce.
• Sharecroppers also existed and the government received half of their crop as share in return for the supply of seeds and oxen to them.
• Various other taxes were imposed on the peasants besides the regular Bhaga.
• These included the 'Pindakara', an assessment tax which was collected from group of villages, 'Bali' whose nature is unknown, 'Kara', a part of the produce from the fruit and flower gardens.
• 'Senabhakta' was the provision to the royal army and 'Hiranya' seems to be a payment in cash.
• These normal taxes could not meet the mounting expenditure of the state so we have references to the emergency tax in the Panini's Ashtadhyayi and Kautilya's Arthashastra.
• The imposition of 'Pranaya' according to the nature of the soil -
• however only once- amounting to 1/3" or 1/4 of the produce was one such measure.
• All these show that the whole economy of the country was geared to the financial needs of the state.
• Mostofthetaxesweregatheredinkindanddepositedinthecentralstorehouse under the supervision of its superintendent.

Animal Husbandry: There were some pockets where pastoral economy was pursued.

• The domestic animals included cattle, goats, sheep, asses and camels.
• Herds were maintained not only by the state but also by wealthy individuals.
• Fishing and hunting were also pursued as means of livelihood, especially by tribal societies.
• The practitioners of these occupations had to pay 1/10 th of their catch to the royal storehouse.
• Thus,oneof the motivesbehind Ashoka'sban on indiscriminate killingof animals may havebeen economic.Cattle wealthwasutilisedbythepeopleanda part ofit waspaid to the state.

Craft Production: In Buddhist texts, we have references to various metals, manufacturing of ornaments from precious metals, domestic tools and agricultural implements.

• Mining and metallurgy was an important activity which sustained royal power, agriculture, trade & industry.
• The state exercised monopoly on the manufacturing of arms, ships, salt production and certain other implements.
• Other products like dyes, gums, drugs and perfume were also manufactured in the state enterprises.
• The liquor brewing was under official supervision.
• Certain centres like Mathura, Kasi and Mahisa etc. became famous for their excellent fabric.
• Woollen work also flourished.
• The Greek texts mention masterpieces in embroidery.
• The contemporary texts also refer to the stone cutters.
• Advanced leather work is referred to in Buddhist literature and the Arthashastra.
• The archaeological findings prove that pottery making had also reached a high level of specialisation as proven by the availability of NBPW and ring wells.

Guilds: The industry/craft production was under a centralised economic administration.

• Although craftsmen were organised into guilds, the state's own participation in commodity production was significant.
• Market regulations existed as well, especially in the cities.
• The literary sources frequently refer to the institution of guilds which developed and stabilised under Mauryas due to the extension of trade.
• These guilds controlled almost the entire manufacturing.
• They were registered by local officials.
• These guilds developed a social hierarchy within their own artisans.
• Aguildactedasacheckonfraudulentpracticesbytheartisansandmaintained the wage levels by collective bargaining.
• By the last phase of the Mauryan rule, guilds became independent of the state's economic policy.
• This was an important reason for continued economic prosperity and
• absence of any significant economic dislocation even after the sunset of Mauryan rule.
• This is proven from the fact that these guilds are denoted as a significantsourceof religious charity inthe Buddhist and Jaina sources in post-Mauryan period.

Trade and commerce

According to the Arthashastra, trade regulations were carefully planned and executed by a well-organised system during the Mauryan period.

• The sale of the merchandise was strictly supervised.
• The tax rate levied on merchandise seemsto be 1/10 th of the price but variation was inevitable according to the type and quality of the products. Toll tax was also collected.
• The general principle was that the traders dealing in foreign articles should not get more than 10% profit and those dealing in indigenous articles should not get more than 5% profit.

Tradeflourishedduetopoliticalunityandcentralisedadministration whichinturnprovided efficient transport, security and communication by building roads, market towns etc.

• The friendly relation between Mauryan rulers and Hellenistic rulers reinforced the Indian foreign-trade.

Trade Materials: The foreign trade was mainly with Egypt, West Asia, Red Sea region and Seleucid Empire in the West and Burma, Sri Lanka and South East Asia in the east.

• According to Greek classical sources, the Indian export consisted of ivory, tortoise shells, pearls, cotton textile and rare wood.
• Imports mainly consisted of horses, hides and other luxury goods. These exchanges and commercial interactions acted as a conduit to the cultural and intellectual diffusion.

Trade Routes: Different trade routes are mentioned in the contemporary texts. These traversed the length and breadth of the country.

• Mainly, four routes were important.
• First, which ran east to west principally along the Ganga-Yamuna. This route linked Chandraketugarh to Mathura via Pataliputra, Banaras and Kosambi.
• Second one ran from North to Deccan.Thisrouteextended from variouscities in the Ganga-Yamuna doab to Pratishthana, Bharuch, Dwarka, Suvarnagiri, Mosali (Masulipatnam) etc.
• Third one ran from Pataliputra to ports like Tamralipti, Mahasthangarh and Chandraketugarh etc.
• Fourth, which ran from Ganga-Yamuna towards North western cities like Taxila, Sakala (Sialkot), Pushkalavati (Peshawar).
• It further stretched fromthe land of fiveriversto the great highwaysof
• central and western Asia.
• Literary references to the roads to the Deep South are few. But, the trade and cultural links definitelyexisted as witnessed from the Ashokan edictsand their concentration in the Karnataka region.

Money Economy: Megasthenes states that Indians neither put money in usury nor knew how to borrow.

• This seems hardly possible and credit is the key for trade and commerce.
• Also,Kautilyadealswithorganisedmoney-lendinginthe Arthashastra.Thus,itseems that there was no taboo on such activity.
• In the Arthashastra and contemporary Greek text, we have references to the gold coins called Nishka and Suvarna, silver coins called Dharanas or Panas and copper coins called Karshapana or Masika.
• The coins were issued by a central authority, probably the imperial mint.
• We do not know whether these coins were simplytokens for trading purposes or they also symbolised the sovereignty of the King.
• Considering the circulation pattern of coins in the economy, it would seem that the copper coins -being smaller in value/denomination- were more widely used, followed

by silver coins, which were mainly hoarded as wealth or used for high value transactions.

External contacts of Mauryas From the time of Chandragupta till the Empire came to an end, we can divide the foreign relations of the Mauryas into two distinct phases:

(i) The initial phase or the phase of expansion.

• The initial phase of expansion was guided by a policy of securing trade routes and subjugating the Greek settlements in the North and North-West.
• It appears that the Mauryas did not face trouble from that frontier after this.
• The incorporation of central India gave them control over Dakshinapatha (the southern route) and brought them into the peninsula.
• It can be argued that the initial phase of expansion came to an end with the Kalinga war.

(ii) The latter phase or the phase of consolidation.

• Once the Mauryan expansion reacheditslimits,the emphasisshiftedto consolidation and maintainingfriendly relations,not onlywith immediate neighboursbut also with far-off countries.
• Contacts had been established with the western world and there was a regular exchange of messengers during the times of Bindusara.
• Strabo's account mentions Deimachus as a successor to Megasthenes in the Mauryan court.
• In Major Rock Edict XIII, Ashoka has referred to five contemporary rulers:
• Antiochus II of Syria
• Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt
• Antigonas of Macedonia
• Magas of Cyrene and
• Alexander of Epirus.
• The reference of these rulers is in the context of dhammavijaya (victory by Dhamma) which indicates that missions were sent to these rulers with the message of Dhamma.
• These missions must have successfully established friendly contacts as the Edict mentions that the greatest victory i.e., victory by Dhamma had been achieved in these regions.
• The relations of Mauryas with the Southern powers seems cordial.
• Rock Edict XIII mentions Dhammavijaya in these regions too.
• Sri Lanka remained another friendly neighbour due to the policy of Dhamma.
• Thus, we see a marked shift in the relations of the Mauryas with other powers i.e. from a policy of expansion and subjugation to a policy of friendship and moral conquest.

Internal and External policy of Ashoka Exploring the personality of Ashoka has been a big challenge for historians. Infact, the incongruity of source material creates complexity in the evaluation of his personality.

• Brahmanic texts hardly paid any attention to his unique character and projected him as a less important king.
• On the other hand, Buddhist texts, mainly Sri Lankan chronicles, presented him as a monk-king.
• Differentfromboth these sources,there are Ashokan inscriptions.Theythrowafresh light on his personality.
• His major rock edicts prove that he was basically a monarch but with a different attitude. He tried to respect all the dominant religious sects of the time.
• But at the same time, minor edicts project him as a dedicated Buddhist.
• So, the incongruity in source material leadsto multiple debates and discussions about him.

Ashoka's Policy of Dhamma The evaluation of the Dhamma policy of Ashoka has been a controversial issue in Indian historiography.Theterm Dhammaisnottheliteraltranslationoftheword'religion',Dhamma mainly means righteousness.

So, the question arises whether the Dhamma of Ashoka was religion or righteousness?

I. Earlier, the Dhamma of Ashoka was considered to be synonymous with Buddhism. We know that Ashoka was personally a Buddhist.

• For example, he expressed his faith in three gems of Buddhism in the Bhabru inscription.
• Likewise, from the Rummindei inscription, we come to know that Ashoka visited the sacred Buddhist sites like Lumbini.
• In his Rupnath inscription (minor rock edict) he admits that he was already a lay Buddhist follower for some time before he took keen interest in its teachings.
• Furthermore, his Schism inscriptions (Kosambi, Sanchi & Sarnath) show his concern for discipline in Buddhist monasteries.
• Somehistorianshavetriedtotracehisstatecraftto Buddhisttextssuchas the Lakkhan Sukta and Cakkavattisihanada Sukta (Digha Nikaya, Sutta Pitaka) which contain notions about ideal kingship.

II. Counter Argument But when we observe critically, we find that his state policy rose above any sectarian boundaries. It borrowed something from different sects.

• From Brahmanism, it took royal conduct, discipline and coercive power;
• From Buddhism, it borrowed morality, a code of conduct. In the form of his Dhamma policy, he presented some social and family ideals/values/code of conduct before his people.
• For example, inhispolicyof Dhamma,heemphasised upon respecttoelders,parents, teachers, compassion towards slaves, servants etc.
• He emphatically supported giving equal respect to Brahmanas and Shramanas (heterodox sects).

So, in one sense his policy of Dhamma was definitely different from sectarian Buddhism.

• Ashoka did not talk about basic Buddhist principles like four noble truths, eightfold- path etc.
• The minor rock edict 3 (found only at Bairat/Bhabru) is the only exception where he recommends even laypersons to read six Buddhist texts on Dhamma.

It is true that the contribution of Buddhism was greater than that of any other sect in his Dhamma policy.

• This is so because Buddhism was not simply a religious sect, but also a social movement which was amenable to the demands of contemporary time.

The policy of Dhamma fulfilled the political, economic and cultural needs of the time.

• The Mauryan Empire was extremely large. It was a multi-racial, multilingual, and multi-regional empire.
• So, Ashoka was using his Dhamma policy of tolerance and non-violence as a cementing force.
• Economically, the policy of Dhamma encouraged agrarian economy through discouraging slaughter of animals.
• Culturally, the policy of Dhamma tried to encourage cultural homogeneity and religious tolerance among different sects in such a vast empire.

So, the policy of Dhamma had a greater meaning.

• It represented some universal values suitable to his empire.
• It could appeal to all irrespective of region, and race.
• If weobservethe Aramaicand Greekversionsof the Ashokaninscriptionin the North West, we find out that Ashoka dabbled with Zoroastrianism as well. E.g.

in the Aramaic version (Kandahar) of his inscription, he declared that there is no last judgement for a sacred man.

In this way, Ashoka becomes a unique king not simply in Indian history but in the history of the world. No king in the world other than Akhenaten of Egypt (c. 1300 BCE) experimented with such a policy. In the form of his Dhamma policy, he presented a universal civil code to his people. It was definitely a very big step at that time because a universal civil code has not been enacted even by the present Indian Republic.

Evaluation of Dhamma policy in external affairs

Ashoka laid the foundations for a unique foreign policy. He gave up the policy of military conquest and adopted the policy of conquest by Dhamma.

He mentions in Major Rock Edict XIII that he replaced the Bherighosha (the siren of war) with the Dhammaghosha (the siren of Dhamma).

He appointed 'Dhamma Duta' (moral ambassador) in place of Rajaduta (political ambassadors).

• In his Major Rock Edict XIII, he boasted that he conquered not only his own land but also the land of his neighbours with Dhammaghosha.
• It is in this context that he mentions his neighbours in the North West, such as Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt, Magasof Cyrene, Alexander of Epirus and Antigonas of Macedonia.
• Likewise, he talks about his Southern neighbours like Chola, Pandyas and Tampraparni (Sri Lanka). Ashoka sent diplomatic and religious missions to different regions.

Ashoka did not appear to be as enthusiastic about this policy later.

• For example, in his Major Rock Edict VII, which was supposedly the last royal order under Ashoka, he appeared to be dissatisfied with the progress of the Dhamma policy.
• Secondly, a permanent peace could not be established at his borders in spite of his best efforts and hissuccessors were invaded bythe Indo-Greeks from the North-West just after his death.
• Apartfromthat,accordingtooneexplanation,thepeacebetween the Seleucid Empire and the Mauryan Empire was maintained because Antiochus II of Syria was involved in wars on his western border.
• So,itappearsthat Ashoka's Dhammapolicy didnotproducethedesiredresultsin the immediate context.

Long Term Impact: But this policy should be judged in the long term context.

• In other words, we can say that the success of Ashoka did not lay in his immediate achievements, rather, in his unique methods and noble objectives.
• In fact, he changed the priorities of his foreign policy and presented a unique example before the world community.
• His foreign policy became a beacon for the future foreign policy in India.
• It rejected the doctrine of 'Rajmandala' established by Kautilya. In its place, he emphasised over the policy of peace with his neighbours.
• After independence, the contents of his policy reappeared in the form of Panchsheel doctrine as well as in the Gujral doctrine.

Further,the policyof Dhamma represented amodel of life guidedbytheprincipleofpeaceful coexistence. The world has materially advanced so far in the last 2400 years, but it has not morally surpassed Ashoka and his Dhamma.

How far did Ashoka's Dhamma contribute to the decline of the Mauryan Empire?

It is argued by some that the Dhamma policy was a great cultural achievement but proved politically devastating. The policy of peace by Ashoka was declared harmful to the health of the empire.

Butthislineofargumentis not convincing because Ashokawaspragmatictowardsthe policy of peace and non-violence.

• He neither gave up his power nor demobilised his massive army.
• It is difficult to accept that he preferred peace in all circumstances.
• Despite his focus on non violence within his domain, the death penalty was not abolished. But the policy of Dhamma could have produced some negative impact on the empire.

Firstly, Ashoka showed too much eagerness to spread Dhamma.

• So, he appointed a special group of officers called 'Dhamma Mahamatras'.
• These officers started to interfere in the personal life of the people.
• So, it might have produced some reaction against the government. Secondly, Ashoka gave too much emphasis to welfare works under his Dhamma policy. It definitely strained the state finances.
• Even before Ashoka, Chanakya had given emphasis over the welfare works under the state but these welfare works were executed in order to strengthen the state not to weaken it.
• On the other hand, welfare works of Ashoka possibly produced different results. So, we cannot deny the role of policy of Dhamma in the decline of the empire although the role of Dhamma should be viewed in the context of other relevant factors as well.

How did 'Dhamma' address contemporary challenges?

1. Political: To maintain unity and integrity of a vast empire by adopting a persuasive method

in place of coercive methods.

1. Economic: It encouraged agrarian activities by discouraging animal slaughter.
2. Social: It worked as a cementing force in a multi-communal and multi-regional society.

Disintegration of Mauryan Empire The Mauryan Empire began to decline with the death of Ashoka c. 232 B.C.

It seems that Ashoka was succeeded directly by his two grandsons who divided his kingdom between them.

• The eastern half was ruled by Dasartha and the Western part by Samprati.
• Dasaratha's existence is proven from the brief commemorative inscription in caves granted to the Ajivika ascetics.
• Samprati'sname,though not mentioned in any inscription, hasbeen handed down by numerous local and few Jains traditions which place his capital at Ujjain.
• The Western province was threatened by the Bactrian Greeks. It was practically lost to them by c.180 BCE.
• From the Deccan, the threat was posed by the Andhra dynasty.
• Brihadratha was the last Maurya ruler. He was assassinated by Pursyamitra Sunga, his commander-in-Chief c. 181 BCE.
• Thus, the Mauryan rule ended within 50 years of Ashoka's death.

Reasons for Disintegration of Mauryan Empire

The decline of the Mauryas can be attributed firstly to the causes which have been generally applied to the decline of other Indian dynasties as well, and secondly to the causes ascribed exclusively to the Mauryas.

General Causes

(1) The foremost among these is the factor of localism.

• Given the great diversity of people, language and culture and the primitive means of communication, it was very difficult to hold together an empire as large as the

Mauryan Empire.

Two essential facts were complicating the situation:

(i) that most of the regions were economically self-sufficient and hardly dependent on the central authority (in this case Magadha); and (ii) maintaining armies in every region was impractical.

When Regionalism is encouraged by economic independence and the military handicap of the central authority, there is always this tendency to break away.

• At the slightest sign of weakness of the centre, these centrifugal tendencies become strong.
• The Divyavadana talks about Asoka being sent to suppress a revolt in Taxila.
• Earlier also, as Plutarch records, Chandragupta had to virtually 'overrun' his territory to establish order.
• Theseepisodesof rebellion,whichwerecl early symptoms oflatentlocalism,became stronger after Ashoka's death.

(2) Another reason could be the chain of weak successors.

• Ashoka was followed by a series of incompetent rulers, who directed the system towards a collapse.
• Ashoka had put an end to the military conquests, so the military bureaucracy grew restive, pushing the dynasty closer to its end.

(3) Another significant problem with the monarchies is the ever present threat of court intrigues.

• These centralised bureaucracies are fertile grounds for factionalism.
• In this context, Romila Thapar draws our attention to the arbitrary system of recruitment which is an inherent characteristic of such despotic set ups.
• Arbitrary appointments by senior officers are used to strengthen the individual power base and to form cliques and coteries.
• Competition between factions makes the government unstable and there is a strong possibility of certain factions acquiring predominance and using their position to upstage the monarchy.
• The case of Pushyamitra Sunga was very much in tune with this analysis. Causes Specific to the Mauryan Empire A distinct feature of the Mauryan collapse was its suddenness.
• It only took roughly 50 years after Ashoka's death. This clearly points at the factors which are applicable exclusively to the Mauryan case.

There is one school of thought which holds Ashoka responsible for the decline. And there is another school which attempts to exonerate Asoka.

Romila Thapar emphasises more on the general factors and is a leading proponent of the second school.

• She refutes the proposition that Ashoka's pro-Buddhist policies led to the Brahmanical revolt of Pushyamitra Sunga.
• It is clear from his own edicts that Ashoka's policy can't be accused of being anti-Brahmin although there are instances where the Brahmins were condescending to the Mauryas (the Puranas calls them Asuras).
• The theory that Pushyamitra was leading a Brahmanical revolt when he killed Brihadratha is misleading because it was more of a military coup rather than a conscious pro-Brahmin revenge.
• Theveryfact that Pushyamitracouldbecomethecommander-in-chiefisanevidence of the fact that there was no discrimination against the Brahmins.

Romila Thapar and H.C. Ray Chaudhary also criticised the view that Asoka's obsession with non-violence and his subsequent anti-war measures emasculated the army, thus exposing the country to foreign invasion.

• The view that Asoka's policy sapped the martial traits of the people is overstretched by Bhandarkar.
• It is simply not in the power of a single person to bring about such a drastic change in the ingrained character of the people.
• The army grew weak, but as we can see, it was primarily the result of economic strain on state finances.

Ashoka's Role in the decline of Mauryan Empire

But can Asoka be completely exonerated from these charges?

This is not so because Asoka's policy did have important and far reaching ill effects which eventually contributed to the decline of the dynasty.

In his edicts, he exhorts his people to forsake the use of force and to use pacifism and he set himself as an example. His successors had the burdensome model of Ashoka's pacifism to follow at the cost of risking their authority and kingdom.

Ashoka's policy of Dhamma Vijay also contributed to the fall of the Mauryas. Under this policy, there was a shift in the focus of the internal administration from governance to the promotion of morality. Thus, the primary function of the government was overshadowed by the function of the promotion of moral code. This must have led to a change in priorities for almost all the cadre of officers. Thus, administration must have automatically suffered.

This lapse, due to the shift in emphasis, is more prominent in Ashoka's foreign policy.

Ashoka's successors inherited an army which had not fought for 30 years. It easily fell before the invading Bactrian-Greeks.

One of the reasons advanced for Pushyamitra's coup was that he had become disillusioned with the Maurya's failure to protect the empire from the Bactrian-Greek onslaught.

The economic consequences of Asoka's Dhamma policy was probably the most important causeforthe Mauryandecline.There wasa changeinthepatternofresourcechannelisation which greatly weakened the empire.

• The army fought no wars after the Kalinga war so it became rigid and too costly to maintain.
• Ashokasubstantiallyaddedtoanalreadylargebureaucracy byappointingmanynew officers who contributed little to the organisation and nothing to the production.
• His charitable public works and donations were a drain on the state resources.
• Moreover, this mounting expenditure was not accompanied by any territorial gains. Another drawback was that the subcontinent was not fully colonised, thus did not provide much revenue.

The Mauryan tax structure, as per the Arthashastra and the Greek sources, had been stretched to its limits.

The Mauryanstate,initsprimaryfunctionasalandclearingagentin the Doabarea,mayhave caused inordinate deforestation in at least some patches which in turn led to increasing floods, crop damages and loss of revenue and further drain of state finances for relief measures.

Kosambi's analysis of the Mauryan coins shows a debasement.

• The silver content in the punch marked coins decreased in the later years of Asoka's reign, which is clearly a necessary measure to meet the demands on the deflated treasury.

Thus, we can convincingly conclude that the ultimate political disintegration of the Mauryan Empire was caused in a large measure by the gradual weakening of imperial finances.