History Optional — UPSC Mains

Paper 1›Ancient India›Early State & Society — East, Deccan & South

Pallavas Of Tondaimandalam And Chalukyas Of Badami (Western

Chalukyas)

The period between 500 CE and 750 CE was an important phase in the history of Southern India. It does not appear to be an exaggeration to say that between 500 CE and 750 CE, the strength and vigour of Indian history lay south of the Vindhyas.

Here, the term 'South of the Vindhyas' does not simply mean the Maharashtra region but also the Tamil region.

During this period, after the decline of Gupta Empire, centrifugal forces were active in northern India.

Although rulers like Harsha tried to check the process of disintegration, but after his death, the decentralisation process continued. It was during this period that two big empires like Chalukyas of Badami and Pallavas came into existence.

They brought large regions in southern India under their control.
Apartfrom them, Pandyas of Madurai, Western Gangas of Mysore, Chalukyas of Lata (modern South Gujarat) and Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were other important kingdoms.

The last two were possibly offshoots of the Chalukyas. It was not simply a period of political achievements but also that of cultural achievements in South India.

The Chalukyastateof Badami,whichwaslocatedin the Deccanregion,worked as a conduit for the exchange of ideas and cultural values between Northern and Southern India.

Likewise, during this period, a new Tamil identity developed as a result of the interaction between Aryan and indigenous elements.

It was the product of the process of assimilation and reaction simultaneously.

Causes behind the rise of great political powers in South India

Expansion of agrarian economy in the fertile Raichur Doab, the Krishna-Godavari

Delta and the Cauvery Delta.

Leading dynasties of the period established their control over tribal areas with the

help of military dominance.

The Brahmin,Buddhist and Jain land grantees were settled in the frontierareasof the

kingdoms so as to increase the state's political influence and legitimacy.

During this period, elements of the north Indian ideal of kingship were gradually

percolating and reshaping the political model of south India.

The Pallava- Western Chalukya conflict

The period from 500 CE to 750 CE was marked by regular military conflicts between Pallava and Chalukya powers.

This conflict was less political and more geographical.

For example, this conflict was mainly for acquiring the possession over the fertile region of Krishna-Tungabhadra doab (Raichur Doab) and Krishna - Godavari Delta.

After the decline of the Pallava and Chalukya power, the conflict continued between successor states.

The conflict started with the invasion of Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II in the Pallava region.

He defeated Pallava King Mahendravarman I and captured the region of Vengi. The successor of Mahendravarman I, Narshimhavarman, decided to retaliate.

In association with a Sri Lankan King, he invaded the Chalukya region and emerged victorious.

In this conflict, Pulakeshin II was killed.
This event was followed by internal chaos and the Chalukya throne remained vacant for the next 13 years.

Peace andorder once again returnedto Chalukyan statewiththe coronation of Vikramaditya I in c. 655 CE.

Vikramaditya I once again started the conflict with Pallava king Mahendravarmana II and Paramesvara Varmana.

This conflict was continued by the later Chalukya and Pallava kings.

It could not produce anydefinite result and possibly caused the declineof both these dynasties.

In the mid-8 th century CE, the Chalukyas were replaced by Rashtrakutasin the Maharashtra region.

Likewise, in the second half of 9 th century CE, the Pallavas were replaced by the Cholas in the Tamil Nadu region. Administration Theadministrativemodelof South Indiandynastieswasinfluencedby the North Indianideals but they were modified to suit the prevailing local conditions:

On the model of North Indian kings, the Pallava and the Chalukya rulers took the titles like

'Maharaja' and 'Parmeshwara'.

But, some locally popular titles also emerged like 'Dharmamaharaja', 'Agnishtoma', 'Vajapeya' and 'Ashwamedhi'.

From Pallava and Chalukyan copper plate inscriptions, we come to know about a number

of officers.

For example, in the Pallava administration, the crown prince and chief queen occupied important places.

Apart from that, we come to know about officers like Rastrika, Desadhika, Ayuktaka, Rajpurusha etc.

Based on the Gupta administrative model, there was an official called 'Sandhivigrahaka' under the Chalukyas, who was concerned with foreign affairs.

Under the Pallavas, the empire was hierarchically divided into provinces, known as

'Mandalas'.

Likewise, Mandalas were divided into 'Kottams' (district).
Under the Kottams, there were 'Nadus'.

The 'Nadu' was possibly an autonomous unit of administration and consisted of a number of villages.

We don't have sufficient information about the Chalukyan administration.

But, it appears that the state was divided into provinces and provinces into districts.

4.Boththe Pallavasandthe Chalukyasusedtheinstrumentof 'landgrants'inordertoexp and their authority into the tribal areas.

Under Pallavas,inordertohavebettercontrolovertribalregions,someofficers called 'Gaulmika' were appointed.

He was possibly a military governor.

Under the Chalukyas, an official called 'Gavunda' was concerned with the village

administration.

'Mahajan' was another official associated with the rural administration.

One important feature of the Pallava administration was the tradition of local self-

government in the Tamil region.

Here, we come to know about the institutions like 'Ur' or 'Sabha' at the village level and the institutions like 'Nattar' at the level of Nadu.

Local elements were playing an important role in the local administration and the government officers were associated simply with advisory works.

Economy If we observe the Pallava economy, we find that there was a rapid extension of agriculture after the 6 th century CE.

Thisprocessformedthebasisof 2nd urbanisation in South Indiafromthe 9 th century CE.

Onepointtobenotedhereisthatwhile the basisoffirsturbanisation (during Sangam period)in South Indiawastradeandcommerce,thebasisforsecondurbanisation was agriculture.

The evolution of an agrarian economy into an urban economy was a gradual process. At this time, three important institutions were at play in South India: Brahmadeya, Nadu and Nagaram.

The Brahmadeyas were such villagesthat were allotted to the Brahmanasin the form of land grants.

Therefore, the Brahmanas were socially dominant here.

There was a separate category of villages dominated by the rich peasants, called 'Vellalars'.

The 'Nadu' was an administrative unit immediately above the village level.

It consisted of a number of villages.
Duetotheexpansionoftheagrarianeconomy,alargersurpluswasgenerated at the level of Nadus.

Therefore, a class of prosperous peasants got entrenched at this level.
Prosperity in these areas increased the demand for other goods.

The rural population felt the need for such goods that could only be traded.

Therefore,inthevicinityofprosperous Nadus,corporateorganisationsoftraders and merchants called 'Nagaram' materialised.

In this way, the Nagarams also expanded.
Nagarams used to transport goods between different areas for trading purposes.

Some of these Nagarams got linked into a larger trade network which in turn encouraged urbanisation.

Inthisway,Nagaramand Nadustimulatedtheurbanisationprocessin the Deep South. Pallavas and Western Chalukyas made a lot of cultural contributions

Both the states maintained the policy of religious tolerance.

Pallavas apart from giving patronage to Brahmanism, patronised Buddhism as well.
Likewise, Chalukyas apart from giving patronage to Brahmanism, patronised Jainism as well.

Pallavas and Chalukyas contributed to education and learning. They patronised a number

of scholars.

The Pallava court was decorated with scholarslike Dandin, Bharvi and Matrideva etc.

Dandin composed the text 'Daskumarcharita', Bharvi wrote the 'Kiratarjuniyam'.

When Hiuen Tsang toured Kanchipuram, he mentioned Kanchipuram as a great centre for learning.

Likewise, Chalukyan court was decorated by scholars like Ravikirti who composed 'Aihole inscription' of Pulakeshin II.

Pallavas and Chalukyas laid the foundations of two different styles of architecture viz.

Dravida style and Vesara style respectively.

Pallava architecture prepared the base for Dravida style.

In fact, under the Pallavas, two different models of architecture, Rock-cut (cave) temple and free standing structural temple, came into existence.

Furthermore, we can divide Pallava architecture among four groups such as Mahendravarmana style, Narsimhavarmana style, Rajasimha style and Nandivarmana style.

In the first 2 groups, we see the development of Rock Cut Temples.

The specificfeaturesof Mahendravarman style are the construction of Pillared halls hewn out of the mountain faces (Mandapas).

The Mahendra group of monuments includes the cave temples at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur.

Likewise, under Narsimhavarman, 'Ratha' style (free standing
monolithic shrines) of temples developed.
Some of the best examples of the Ratha style are the Pancha Rathas.

The next phase is the structural phase when free-standing shrines were constructed with stone and mortar.

The Rajasimha group encompasses the early structural temples of the Pallavas.

The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, both were constructed by Rajasimha.

The best example of the Nandivarmana group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.

During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity. Likewise, under Chalukyas, the basis for the Vesara style of temple architecture was prepared.

Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal were the important centres of temple construction under Chalukyas.

The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages.

The first stage was the early architectural phase (6 th-early 8 th centuries) and is represented by the cave temples and smaller structural temples at Aihole and Badami.

The second stage was the later and grander 8 th century temples located at Pattadakal.

In this region, temples in both the styles Nagara as well as Dravida were constructed.
Later, they developed into a new form, Vesara style of architecture.
At Pattadakal, Virupaksha (Dravidian) and Papanatha (Nagara) temples are great monuments of Chalukyan style.

Pallavasand Chalukyascontributedtothedevelopment of sculptureandpaintings as well.

For example, under Pallavas, the Amaravati style of sculpture continued.
Likewise, we find evidence of Pallava paintings from Sittanavassal.
Chalukyas contributed to the development of paintings at Badami.

Religion

Syncretism of Deities

An important characteristicofthenew Brahmanism wasitsgeniusto syncretisemany local deities and to evolve a super God.

Syncretism in this context meant that deities worshipped at different places and by different people were recognized as identical and were worshipped as different manifestations of the same supreme deity.

These theistic cults stressed the merit of worship rather than the performance of Vedic sacrifice.

Thus, Vasudeva was identified with Vishnu, a minor Vedic god and Narayana, a god of obscure origin mentioned in the Brahmana literature.

Then, Vishnu was closely connected with Krishna, who represented the fusion between a martial hero and a flute-playing pastoral deity.

Vishnu assimilated many other cults; the cult of the 'divine boar' which prevailed among some of the tribes of Malwa, the cult of Parusrama, a Brahmana hero; and Rama, the great hero of the Ramayana.

Then, Vishnu rose to the status of the Universal God in the Bhagavad Gita.
Similarly, Shiva was syncretised with the Vedic Rudra and Bhairava, a tribal god. He was associated with phallus worship or Linga.

Later, certain other deities such as Skanda (Kartikeya) and the Ganesha also got associated with Shiva.

Adaptation of Tribal Rituals

Yetanotherimportantfeatureof later Brahmanismwasitsadaptationofcertaintribal rituals while keeping the Vedic Yajna rites supreme in theory.

In course of time, the merit earned out of these new rituals was equated with the merit of the Vedic Yajnas.

The sacred shrines of the tribal deities were included as new places of pilgrimage (Tirtha) by developing suitable myths to make them respectable.

The Ithihasas and Puranas are full of such stories which inspire bhakti (devotion) to a personal god.

Spread of Bhakti in South India

All the major north Indian religions travelled southwards - Brahmanism, Jainism and

Buddhism.

The Brahmanas brought with them Vedic Yajna cult and the two theistic cults, Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

The kings were in favour of the Vedic rituals as Yajnas conferred ritual status on them.

On the other hand, the theistic cults appealed to the people thus, it was important for the kings to support them as well.

Eventuallythedevotional theisticcultsweretoprovestronger whichwasrecognized even

by the royal patrons who extended support to Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other sects.

Among the Chalukya and Pallava kings, some professed Bhagavatism and others followed the Pashupati cult.

The famous bas-reliefs of Badami and the monolithic rathas (chariots) at Mahabalipuram testify to the popularity of the theistic cults.

The early form of theistic Bhakti was characterised by the syncretisation of local gods

with Brahmanical gods.

This devotionalism characterised by the fusion of ecstatic local tribal cults (e.g. Velan Veriyadal-togainstrengthandprotection,theearly Tamilsemployedafrenzieddance which was associated with Murugan) and northern theistic schools.

The Tirumurugarruppadai of Nakkirar is a famous devotional work on Murugan, a local tribal god.

Murugan was syncretised with Skanda in this work.
Tirumurugarruppadai was interpolated into Pattupattu (ten idylls).
It is the earliest example of this cross fertilisation.

Tamil Bhakti was led by local poet saints.

This movement was spearheaded in the 6 th century CE by gifted poet-saints who traversed the Tamil country with a missionary zeal.

On their way, they sang their hymns, danced and debated with the heterodox cults.

Amongthese poet-saints, the Shaivite saints were called the Nayanars andthe Vaishanava saints as Alvars.

It also had a strong note of social protest.

Whereas the Brahmanas were obsessed with caste regulations, the Tamil Bhakti movement not only ignored caste but also included men and women of all castes.

Among the Nayanars, Karaikkal Ammai was a woman and Nandanar was a member of the depressed class.

Amongthe Alvars,Andalwasa woman and Tiruppan wasahymnist from alow caste.

Thus, the Bhakti movement carried elements of protest and reform.

Tamil Bhakti soon emerged as a major popular movement.

Unlike the Brahmanas, who propagated Hinduism through esoteric theories and Sanskrit, the hymnal saints sang in easily understood forms, only using the popular language, Tamil.

Their Bhakti was not a reverence for a transcendent deity, but ecstatic love for an imminent one.

Tamil Bhakti was not only characterised by an intense ecstatic piety for the deity, but also an aggressive militancy against the heterodox cults which were growing in popularity among the people with royal support.

The hymns of the saints of this period are marked by an outspoken hatred against the Buddhists and the Jains.

As a result, public debates, competition in performing miracles and
testsoftheirrespectivedoctrinesbythemeansofordealsbecam every common.

Unabletostandbeforetheforceof this Bhaktiwave,whichalsoattractedroyal support, Jainism and Buddhism had to retreat from the South.

This great wave of religious enthusiasm attained its peak in the early 7 th century and its triumph was largely achieved in the two centuries that followed.

However, it soon became a part of the establishment, lost its early radical character and

got enveloped in the Brahmanical orthodoxy.

The Bhakti movement ran parallel to the growth and consolidation of early mediaeval monarchies, first under the Pallavas and then under the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras.

Manytemples were built for Shivaand Vishnu throughoutthe Tamil land by almost all the reigning monarchs.

These temples were endowed with vast landed property, often tax-free.

Extensive land was donated to the Brahmanas as is evident from the thousands of donatives inscriptions on the walls of the south Indian temples.

A prince-priest nexus soon emerged.

The monarchs welcomed the temple-centred bhakti (or unflinching loyalty) as it was suited to the monarchical ideology.

The Brahmanas welcomed thisas it enabled Brahmanism, with its institutional base in the temple-centred agrarian settlements, to emerge as the most dynamic force in south India.

Everywhere, the local temple was the nucleus of religious life and anew social formation.
In these temples, the two arms of the Brahmanical religion -the ritualistic Vedic cult and the theistic devotional cult- could meet.

The temple-centred Bhakti enabled the caste system to fold the tribes of south India into a hierarchical order.

This order fixed the ritualistic and social status of the tribes with the Brahmanas as the fixed point of reference.

The ideology of Bhakti could bring kings, priests and the common people together within a network of understandable social relations.

With the increasing patronage of kings and landed magnates, the Bhakti movement soon became a part of the establishment.

Thus, all traces of dissent, protest and reforms were obliterated by the 10 th century CE.

The Alvars and the Nayanars did not appear any more.

Their place was taken by Vaishanava Acharyas, all of whom were Brahmanas or the Shaivite Acharyas, all of whom came from the rich landed Vellala caste.

Harshavardhan

The downfall of Gupta Empire in the mid-6 th century CE, resulted in the emergence of a number of small independent kingdoms in North India.

The Huns established their supremacy over the Punjab and certain other parts of central India.

The northern and western regionsof India into the handsof a dozen or more feudatories.
An important ruling family to gain prominence in this region was that of the Pushyabhutis who had their capital at Thanesar (Thanesvara in Kurukshetra, Haryana).

The dynasty became influential with the accession of Prabhakarvardhana, who
was able to defeat the Hunas and strengthen his position in the regions of Punjab and Haryana.

Some scholars suggest that in early days they were probably a feudatory of the Maukhari king of Kannauj.

Prabhakara Vardhana had two sons called Rajya Vardhana & Harsha Vardhana
and one daughter, Rajyashri.
Prabhakara's daughter Rajyashri married the Maukhari ruler Grahavarman .

As a result of this marriage, Prabhakara's political status increased significantly.

He assumed the imperial title Parama-bhattaraka Maharajadhiraja. ("the one to whom the other kings bow because of his valour and affection").

Prabhakarvardhana was succeeded by his elder son Rajyavardhana (Harsha's
brother).
Accordingtothe Harshacharita,after Prabhakarvardhana'sdeath, Devagupta,thekingof Malava attacked Kannauj, supported by Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda. Devagupta killed Graha-Varman, and captured Rajyashri.

Harsha's brother, Rajya Vardhana marched against Devagupta and defeated him.
But he was treacherously killed by Shashanka (ruler of the Gauda kingdom) who
had joined the battle as an ally of Devgupta.
Harshavardhana was only sixteen years of age at that time.
He rescued his sister Rajyashri, just as she was going to commit sati.
He united the two kingdoms Kannauj and Thaneshwar and shifted the capital to Kannauj.

Shashanka continued to rule Gauda with frequent attacks from Harsha which he
is known to have faced bravely.
Shashanka was famous for destroying the Buddhist stupas of Bengal and persecuting Buddhists.

Major contemporary sources of information on his life, including copper plates of his rivals Harsha and Bhaskaravarman, the accounts of Banabhatta (Harshacharita) who was a bard in the court of Harsha, and of the Chinese monk Xuanzang, and also coins minted in Shashanka's reign.

Harshavardhana (606 A.D - 647 A.D)

Sources of Harsha period

Harshacarita written by his court poet Banabhatta.
Banabhatta also wrote Kadambari. But he could not complete it, Bhusanabhatta,
his son, completed it.
Si-Yu-Ki,thetravelaccountof the Chinese Buddhistpilgrim Yuan Chiang,whovisited India during AD 629-644.

Three romantic comedy works by Harsha himself:
Ratnavali,
Priyadarshika,
Nagananda.
Inscriptions belonging to his regime:
Banskhera inscription.
Madhuban plate inscription.
Nalanda inscriptions and
Sonepat inscriptions Among the above sources, The works Banabhatta and Yuan Chiang are considered as the most important ones.

Extent of his empire

Harsha ruled over the northern parts of India for a period 41 years.

Hiuen Tsang informs us that Harsha conquered the entire country within the first six years of his reign.

However, the statement is not to be
taken seriously.
Harsha did not occupy even North India
completely nor his wars and conquests were limited to the first six years of his reign.
Harsha first invaded Bengal.
The campaign was not very successful because evidence proves that Sasanka
continued to rule over the greater part of Bengal and Orissa till 637 A.D.
It was only after the death of Sasanka that Harsha succeeded in his mission.
Harsha also exercised influence on the kings of Jalandhar and perhaps Kashmir.
In western India, Harsha's early relations with the rulers of Valabhi were cordial but soon Malwa became the bone of contention between the two and so he had to turn his attention to western India.

It resulted in the defeat of the Valabhi ruler, Dhruvasena II and his acceptance of
the position of a feudatory vassal.
His hostilities with Valabhis ended through a matrimonial alliance.
Opinions differ about Harsha conquest of Nepal.
An era mentioned in the Nepalese inscription can be taken as era of Harsha. So,
we may say that He probably subdued Nepal.
Harsha was also successful in his eastern campaign.
A Chinese account mentions him as the king of Magadha in 641 A.D.
The kingof Kamarupa, Bhaskaravarman,was hissubordinate ally. He helped in his
campaign of Bengal and other partsof eastern India. It helped him gainingcontrol over Bengal and Orissa.
He was victorious against the ruler of Sindh in the north-west as well.
In the south the Narmada was the boundary beyond which Pulakesin II was ruling.
Dr K.M.Panikkardescribesthattheempireof Harshaextended from Kamrupainthe East to Kashmir in the West and from the Himalayas in the North to the Vindhyas in the South.

But Dr R.C. Majumdar has strongly refuted this view.
He has maintained that the empire of Harsha included only Eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa, though his power was recognised by his neighbouring states in North India as was the case with the rulers of Vallabhi, Kutch and Kamrupa.

However, Kashmir, Western Punjab,Sindh, Rajputana,Nepal and Kamrupawere
certainly independent states in his days.
Yet, Harsha has been regarded as a powerful emperor who, certainly, succeeded
in providing unity to a large part of Northern India after the fall of the great Guptas.
Thus, the extent of his empire was most of Northern and central India.
While actual control was exercised in most of Gangetic plain, rulers in peripheral areas were ruling as feudal vassals.

His relation with neighbours depended on political necessities of his empire.

Can Harsha be called the Last Great Hindu Emperor?

Banabhatta and Hiuen Tsang have described Harsha as one of the greatest rulers of Northern India.

Manymodern historianshave acceptedtheir version andhave,therefore,concludedthat

“Harsha was the last great empire-builder of Hindu period and his death marked the”

end of all successful attempts to restore the political unity of India."

But Dr R.C. Majumdar, though recognising him as a powerful ruler of Northern India, is not prepared to accept him as one of the last empire-builders and Hindu rulers of India.

In the North,the empireof Lalitadityain Kashmir,Yasovarman at Kannauj and of

Ganga and Karma of Kalachuri dynasty were not less than the empire of Harsha in extension of territories while those of Pala and Pratihara dynasties were certainly more extensive and proved more durable than the empire of Harsha.

In the South, the Rashtrakuta kings Dhruva and Govinda III, the Chalukaya ruler Vikramaditya VI and the Chola ruler Rajendra, certainly, established far more extensive empires than the empire of Harsha.

Thus, according to Dr R.C. Majumdar, it would be an act of injustice to Indian
history if we accept Harsha as the last empire-builder of Hindu-India.
However, Dr Majumdar accepts many virtues of Harsha.

He writes, "While, therefore, it would be idle to pretend that Harsha

Vardhan's reign constitutes a distinctive age or marks an epoch in Indian history in any way, we cannot withhold our tribute of praise and admiration which is due to him as a great ruler, a brave military leader, a patron of arts and letters, and a men of noble impulses and distinguished personality."

Harsha was a brave ruler and possessed qualities of a practical statesman which helped him in establishing quite an extensive empire in Northern India.

Hesucceededhisbrotherwhenthekingdomof Thaneswarwasoneofsome other
equally powerful kingdoms of Northern India and its position was quite critical.

In the North-West and West, he had enemy states while in the East

Devgupta of Malwa and Sasanka of Bengal had succeeded in killing Graha Varman, his brother-in-law and Rajya Vardhana, his brother and had occupied Kannauj. Under these conditions, his own kingdom was not secure.

But, Harsha took bold steps and pursued an aggressive policy.

He entered into a diplomatic alliance with Bhaskara Varman, ruler of Kamrupa, occupied Kannauj and finally succeeded in occupying Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal.

He fought against the ruler of Vallabhi which ultimately resulted in a matrimonial alliance between the two and helped in strengthening his position in the North.

However, his effort to penetrate in the Deccan was checked by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king of the South.

Further, he did not succeed much against Sasanka.

Yet, Harsha succeeded in creating a powerful and extensive empire of his age in Northern India and we have no hesitation in accepting him as one of the empire- builders of Northern India.

Therefore, Harsha has been regarded as a capable ruler and has been assigned a respectable place among the rulers of ancient India. Yet, he was neither the last great empire-builder nor a great emperor of ancient India.

Harsha failed to provide that unity and emotional integrity to his empire which could succeed in the establishment of a great and enduring empire in India.

Therefore, his empire broke up soon after his death.

Thus, the success of Harsha was personal and proved short-lived which proves
that he lacked the qualities which would have succeeded in providing an enduring progress and unity to India. That is why he fails to be ranked among the great emperors of India though, of course, he has been rightly accepted as one of the great rulers of his own times.
Theoretically, Harsha ruled as an autocrat. But in practice his rule was one of enlightened despotism.

As the ministersandthevillagecommunitypossessed great power theyserved asacheck on the royal autocracy.

"People lived in peace and happiness. The king made charities to the poor."

Administration of Harsha

The Administration of Harsha Vardhana was theoretically despotic and in oriental despotism the sovereign is the centre of the State.

Hence the success in administration depends on his ability and benevolence. (a) Civil Administration:

The civil administration of Harsha Vardhana is highly praised.
According to Hiuen Tsang, the day of Harsha was divided into three periods.
One was devoted to State affairs and two for religious works.
The king personally supervised the administration instead of relying upon the bureaucrats.

He constantly toured the provinces and administered justice to all.
During this tour he used to punish the guilty and made contact with the people.
Rural and urban areas received equal attention.
He suspended his inspection work during the rainy season on account of the
difficulties of weather and communications.
Hiuen-Tsang tells us that during the reign of Harshavardhana there were very few criminals and rebels.

Whoever offended the law was strictly punished.
The principal modes of punishment were mainly mutilation of limbs, banishment into the jungles, imprisonment etc. Trial by ordeal was also in vogue.

(b) Military Administration:

Harsha had a well-organised standing army.
It had elephants, camels, cavalry and infantry.
Hiuen Tsang says that Harsha had 60,000 elephant's corps and a cavalry of one lakh.
Bana says that horses were purchased from places like Kamboja, Sindh, Persia, etc. (c) Ministers and Advisors:

He was assisted by a council of ministers, known as the Mantri-Parisad, who advised him in all important affairs concerning the state and on matters of foreign policy.

There were a host of other high and low officers to manage the day to day governmental activities.

Harsha Charita of Banabhatta provides us with a list of them.

Other ministers and officials were

Mahasandhivigrahika (supreme minister for peace and war),
Mahapratihara (head of the palace-guards),
Mahabaladhikrita (commander of the forces),
Mahakshapatalike (chief accounts-officer),
Nyayakarnika (judicial-officer),
Bhandagaradhikrita (superintendent of stores),
Kayastha (scribe), etc.

The superior civil service was manned by Kumaramatyas or Cadet Ministers.
According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha was just in his administration and punctilious in the discharge of his duties.

Society was not choked by a grinding bureaucracy or overburdened by a heavy system of taxation.

Families were not registered and individuals were not subject to forced labour contribution. (d) Feudalism

Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas yet evidence shows that Harsha's administration was not as efficient and all pervasive as that of the Mauryas or that of the Guptas.

His administration had become more feudal and decentralised. i.e the Nature of Polity was a confederate type of monarchy.

Direct administration was less extensive than the sphere of influence.
The accepted title of a great king in Harsha's days was Parma-Bhattaraka Mahesvara and Maharajadhiraja which implied the existence of lesser kings with considerable authority within the empire.

The major part of the territory conquered by Harsha was ruled by such
feudatories.

Independent in the internal administration of their territories, they generally owed allegiance to a suzerain.

Bana speaks of samanta, mahasamanta, pradhana samanta etc.
The Local administration was, for all practical purposes, independent of the centre. The officer in charge of the district (ayukta) and the provincial official (kumaramatya) were the link between local administration and the centre.

Village came under the control of rural bodies consisting of the headman and the
village elders.
Harsha maintained contact with public opinion both through his officers and by his own tours, which gave him the opportunity of supervising the administration.

Most of the senior officers enjoyed the income of particular areas of land as remuneration of their posts as they were not paid in cash.

But the lower grade officers were paid in cash.
Thuswe findtracesof the Jagirdari system offeudalism in Harsha'sadministrative system.

Administrative Units

The administration of Harsha was similar to the Gupta Empire.

Bhukti:

The kingdom was divided into various provinces or divisions called Bhukti.

Visayas:

They were further divided into Visayas corresponding to modern districts.

Pathaka:

It was a smaller territorial term perhaps of the size of the present day taluk.

Grama:

The lowest unit of administration was Grama.

Economy under Harsha

Economy under Harsha's reign became growingly more self-sufficient and feudal in nature as trade and commerce receded.

Thisisreflectedinthedeclineoftradecentres,paucityofcoinsandnearcomplete
disappearance of trader and merchant guilds. (though initially the economy of northern India prospered and his capital at Kanauj became a great centre of trade.)
Diminishing trade and commerce affected handicraft and other industries through want of demand; and affected agriculture although not directly.

As a result of the lack of trade, the need to produce agricultural goods for sale externally vanishedandpeoplebegan producingamountsadequateenoughtomeettheirown local

needs. This marked the rise of self-sufficiency in the village economy and the growing dependence on agriculture.

(a) Feudalism:

When scholars mention Indian feudalism, the kingdom of Harsha is usually taken as a typical state.

Insight into Harsha's state is given by the discovery of a set of plates of copper, dating back to 632 CE, recording the gift of land by a military officer under Harsha's service to two Brahmins.

Donations before Harsha's reign had come from either a royal prince or one of the provincial governors.

In the copper plates, the first dignitary mentioned was a Mahasamanta, who ruled a territory adjoining Kanauj.

But, the donor of the land was a military servant of Kanauj, and the execution of
the grant came under Harsha's accounts.
This leads to the conclusion that the Mahasamantas were in fact independent
rulers with kingdoms near the core area of an overlord - here, King Harsha - and they paid tribute and provided military assistance to him.
Though they mayhave obtained theirterritories through inheritance or conquest, there were some who served kings and got grants in the form of land to support their official duties; a process similar to distribution of feudal grants in Europe.

(b) Finance:

The main source of income of the State was land-revenue; it was 1/6 th of the agricultural produce. There were other taxes also, but they were light and the State's demands were few.

The income of the State was spent under four categories:
for the expenses of the state and ceremonial worship;
for the advancement of ministers;
for rewarding the clever, the learned and the talented;
for acquiring religious merit by spending on the heretics.

A gold coin found has been attributed to Harsha. It has on it the legend Harshadeva with the figure of a horseman.

Harsha is called Harshadeva not only in inscriptions but also in Bana's Harshacharitha.

About 284 silver coins with the name 'Sri Siladitya' was discovered.

Patron of scholars

Harsha iscreditedwiththecompositionofthree Sanskritdramas-Ratnavali,Priyadarsika and Nagananda.

In addition, he is credited with two significant poems on Buddhist themes -

Ashtamahasricaityastotra (Praise to Eight Grand Chaityas)
Suprabhatastotra (Laud to Morning)
A tract on grammatical gender, the Linganusasanam.

Harsha's authorship has been disputed on several occasions, but no decisive
contrary arguments have been proposed.
He was also a skilled Calligraphist.
His signature is found in the Banskhera copper plate inscription.
He had an interest in poetry as well.
The inscription of Banskhera and Madhuban plates are evidently his own
composition.
Jayadeva,12 th-century poet and author of the Gita Govinda, names Harsha along
with Bhasa and Kalidasa.
Banabhatta says that Harsha was a lute player and had wide learning.
He patronised brilliant philosophers, poets, dramatists and artists.
He allotted one fourth of the revenue from the crown lands for rewarding the
learned.
Hegaveliberallytothegreatseatofeducation,namely,the Universityof Nalanda.
Harsha had a large number of Scholars in his court:

Bana was the chief among them and he wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.

Haridatta was also patronised by Harsha.
Jayasena was famous for his learning in various subjects and Harsha offeredhimtherevenuesofeightvillagesin Orissa.However,theofferwas declined by Jayasena.

Mayura the author of Mayurashataka, and
Bhartrihari, the author of Vakapadiya, a grammarian, also lived at the court of Harsha.

Bana mentionsmore than oncethata group ofskilledpainterspaintedauspiciousscenes.
The iconoclastic zeal of the early Muslim invaders has left us not even a trace of these paintings nor the monuments erected by Harsha.

Religion

Earlierhewasprobablya Saivabyfaith.Laterheconvertedto Buddhismaftercompletion of his conquests. Later on, he changed over to Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Hiuen Tsang.

Hislandgrantinscriptionsdescribehimas Parama-maheshvara(supremedevotee
of Shiva), and his play Nagananda is dedicated to Shiva's consort Gauri.
His court poet Bana also describes him as a Shaivite.
Harsha's conversion to Buddhism is attributed by Bana to the influence of the Buddhist ascetic Divakaramitra who lived in the hermitage in the Vindhya forests.

It was however Chinese Pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) who definitely gave both Harsha and his sister their faith in Mahayana Buddhism by his discourse on its doctrines and exposure of the deficiency of Hinayana at the very first meeting between Harsha and him.

It shows his conversion to Buddhism would have happened in the later part of his
life.
Yuan Chiang states that Harsha banned animal slaughter for food, and
built monasteries at the places visited by Gautama Buddha.
He erected several thousand stupas on the banks of the Ganges river, and
built well-maintained hospices for travellers and poor people on highways across India.
He was always tolerant of other religions. He built charitable institutions and did charity with generosity.

Even Yuan Chiang states that Harsha patronised scholars of all religions, not just Buddhist monks.

Harsha used to organise great religious festivals.
Yuan Chiang mentions 2 great assemblies at Prayagraj and Kannauj.
At these assemblies global scholars were invited and bestowed charitable alms on
them.
Accordingtothe Xuanzang,whovisitedhiskingdomin 636,Harshabuiltnumerous
stupas in the name of Buddha.
His approach to religion is evident in his celebrated play Nagananda.
The play's theme is based on the Jataka tale of the Bodhisattva Jimutavahana, but Harsha introduces the Goddess Gauri, as the saviour of Jimutavahana, a feature not found in the Jataka.

At Nalanda he erected a bronze temple, 100 feet high, and along the highway built rest houses and hospitals.

The Kanauj Assembly

In 643 A.D. Harsha summoned an assembly at Kanauj.
The object of the assembly was to take advantage of the presence of Hiuen Tsang to spread the teachings of Buddha in the country.

A large number of kings attended the assembly.
There were 3000 Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhist monks, 3000 Brahmanas and Nigrodhas and about 1000 Buddhist scholars from the Nalanda University.

The meeting was presided by Hiuen Tsang where a topic on Mahayana Buddhism was discussed.

The meeting lasted for 23 days. On that occasion a monastery and shrine was
erected on thebanksof Gangaand agolden image of Buddha waskept ina tower, 100 feet high.
A similar but smaller image, three feet in height was carried every day in a
procession which was joined by 20 Rajas and 300 elephants.
Harsha personally washed the image and carried it in the procession.
Attheconclusionoftheassembly,Harshainrecognitiontothescholarshipof Hiuen Tsang offered him gold, silver, jewels and other valuables including garments. But Hiuen Tsang refused to accept them.

Then Harsha placing Hiuen Tsang on an elephant led him in a procession proclaiming that he had established the standard of Mahayana doctrines overthrowing all opposing ones.

The Prayag Assembly

After the assembly at Kanauj, Harsha, accompanied by Hiuen Tsang,proceeded to Prayag (Allahabad) at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna (and Sarswati) where he used to celebrate another solemn religious festival at the end of every five years (Kumbha Mela).

This assembly was the sixth of its kind during his reign.

Harsha summoned histributary kings,the kingof Vallabhi and Bhaskar Varma, the kingof Assam; followers of different sects, Shramanas, Nirgranthas, the poor and the orphan and the needy to attend this assembly.

On thefirst daythe image of Buddhawasinstal led in athatched buildingfollowed
by the distribution of precious articles and clothing of the first quality.
On the second day they installed the image of Aditya (Sun-god) and distributed in
charity precious things and clothing to half the amount of the previous day.
On the third day they installed the image of Shiva followed by distribution of
charity and gifts as on the day before.
This assembly lasted for three months.

Society during the time of Harsha

The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang who visited India during the rule of Harsha has left valuable accounts of the observation which he had made on the society of those times.

According to Hieun Tsang people were known for their honesty, courage and love for learning.

They were not deceitful or treacherous in their conduct and were faithful in their
oaths and promises.
They were known for their personal hygiene and used to clean the floors of their
houses with cow-dung and strewn it with season flowers.
Theybatheddailyandsmearedtheirbodieswithscentedunguentslikesanda land
saffron.
They used to wash their hands before meals and fragments and remains of meals were not served up again.

The Nalanda University

Not only from China but also from countries like Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Java, Tiber, Ceylon, etc., students came to India to study in her various universities including the University of Nalanda.

Nalanda was an educational institute of higher learning or post-graduate studies.
Here education was not confined to religious subjects nor it was connected with one religion or sect. Hindu and Buddhist literature in all their branches and other subjects like logic, grammar, medicine, Sankhya philosophy, occult science, etc. were studied.

The university campus had many halls and buildings with storeys where about 8500 students and 1500 teachers lived. The students were provided with free education, food and lodging.

The working hours of the university was of eight hours and nearly one hundred lectures were delivered everyday by many teachers, the famous of whom were Dharmapal (who

was the Kulapati of Nalanda when Hiuen Tsang was a student there), Arya Deva, Chandrakirti,Chandragomin,Gunamati,Prabhamitra,Buddhakirti,Jinamitra,Sumatisena, etc.

Students seeking admission here had to pass a tough entrance examination and only about 20 percent could succeed in clearing it.

The university had a big library comprising of three buildings known as 'Ratna-Sagar', 'Ratnadadhi' and 'Ratna Ranjaka'.

Chinese traveller Yijing notes that revenues from 200 villages (as opposed to 100 in Xuanzang's time).

Towards the end of twelfth century, Muslim invaders set fire to the buildings of the university, burnt the valuable library and killed the monks, teachers and students. The glorious career of a university famous the world over came to an end.

Afghan military chief Bakhtiyar Khilji was the man who destroyed the great universities at Nalanda, Vikramsila and Odantapuri.

Harsha's Personality (characteristics of both Samudragupta and Ashoka)

At a very young age Harsha took up the reigns of the kingdom and established a fairly large empire.

His was a multi-dimensional personality.
Not only was he a good administrator but also known for his political shrewdness.
The way he made the ruler of Vallabhi into his permanent ally by giving his
daughter in marriage to him is evidenced to it.
Similarlythough the ruler of Gauda, Sasanka wasresponsible for the death of hisbrother,

Rajyavardhana, Harsha after rescuing his sister did not took a hasty decision to take on Sasanka given the precarious situation in which he had come to power after the death of his father, mother, brother and brother-in-law.

Because of his ideas of administration and military achievements some historian like Dr. R. K. Mookerjee had declared that as a conqueror and administrator, as one solicitous of the well-beingof hissubjects Harsha combined inhimself piety of Ashokaand thevalour of Samudragupta.

Both the ruler brought most of north India under their control and showed their
might to the far flung rulers and reducing them to level of feudal vassal.
Harsha having the piety of Ashoka:
Hiuen Tsang described that Harsha conquered the entire country within the first
six years of his reign. And then peacefully ruled for next 30 years without raising single arm.

Ashoka had also involved in military activities only in early part of his rule and after the war of Kalinga he gave up war.

Like Ashoka, Harsha too patronized Buddhism. Both are said to have converted to Buddhism and adopt its ideas.

Yuan Chiang states that Harsha banned animal slaughter for food.

Ashoka, asper hismajor Rock Edict I, also had Prohibited animal slaughter and Baned festive gatherings and killings of animals.

Yuan Chiang further states that he erected several thousand stupas on the banks
of the Ganges River, and built well-maintained hospices for travellers and poor people on highways across India.

Ashoka also said to have constructed 84000 stupas and several Viharas for traveling monks.

Religious assemblies were organised during both rulers. e.g,

Third Buddhist council was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra under the patronage of King Asoka and under the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa.

Harsha organised 2 major assemblies at Kannauj and Prayag under presidency of Yuan Chiang.

Both kings are known for their generosity and made donations to different
religious order.
Both Harsha and Ashoka, though being converted to Buddhism were tolerant to
other religions.
For both Ashoka and Harsha the welfare of his subjects as his foremost duty and,
except the rainy season, they constantly travelled over different parts of his empire to see things with his own eyes.

Both were known for there benevolent nature.
Kautilya states that "In the happiness of his subjects lies the king's happiness, in their welfare lays his welfare".

Yuan Chiang also states that "Harsha even forgets to take meals or sleep for doing Public Welfare activities".

Like Ashoka.Harshaalsomaintainedfriendlyrelationswithsomeofhisneighbors
like Bhaskarvarman of Kamrupa and with ruler of Jalandhar.

Ashoka also maintained friendly relations with his neighbors like Chola, Pandyas, Satyapura and Keralputra Kingdoms of South.

Both Ashoka and Harsha had diplomatic relation with foreign rulers. While Ashoka sent envoys to Greek ruler, ceylon etc Harsha sent envoy to Chinese ruler.

However, Some Historian like K. M. Panikkar states that there is no similarity between them except of the most superficial kind. The only point of comparison is perhaps that

they were both patrons of Buddhism. He says that Harsha was a military monarch for greater part of his reign. Some other points which raises doubts on such comparisons are:

There are evidences that Harsha was involved in war even in his later part of his regime. E.g. the control over Bengal was gained only after the death of Sasanka in

637 Ce.

Yuan Chiang states that Harsha built several monasteries and stupas. But it is not
proved archaeologically.
Ashoka concept of righteous conquest is not found during Harsha.
Harsha having the valour of Samudragupta:
Like Samudragupta, Harsha isalso known for his militaryconquests and victories.
Both had waged many wars, followed a policy of expansion and aggression and
established a vast empire.
Harsha attempted to revive theimperial memories of Samudragupta andsought
to unite the Northern and Southern India under one sculpture--in vain as the sequel proved.
The Allahabad pillar inscription gives information about Samudragupta's
conquests and great qualities. Similarly Banabhat and Yuan Tsang given information about Harsha conquests.
However, this comparison with Samudragupta has been questioned by many scholars:
Harsha ascended the throne of both Thanesar and Kannauj. This placed him in a
privileged position for achieving his goals of empire building.
Harsha was a capable commander but certainly no military genius or a great
conqueror.

He didnotsucceed much against Sasanka and,probably,was defeated by Pulakesin II while the friendship of Vallabhi ruler was bargained by entering into matrimonial alliance with him.

On the other hand, Samudragupta got military success even in southern part of the country.

The success of Harsha was personal and proved short-lived which proves that he
lacked the qualities which would have succeeded in providing an enduring progress and unity to India.
One the other hand, Samudragupta created an enduring empire which lasted for
more than 150 years
Therefore, the historians like Dr. R. C. Majumdar has questioned such view. Though considering him as a combination of the piety of Ashoka and the valour of Samudragupta

is questionable, Harsha was without doubt an enlightened monarch and deserves to be considered among India's greatest rulers of his time.

Indeed Harsha was the last in a long line of the Hindu rulers who worked to build and organise a powerful state for the progress of humanity.

But it will be wrong to think that Harsha made the last attempt for political unity
of India.
After his death we saw the rise and fall of several empires.
Yetwecannotunderestimatehiscontributionasitwashewhomadethesmall Thaneswar a big power in Indian history.

He was indeed a great scholar and equally a great administrator.
His two admirers Banabhatta and Hiuen-Tsang spoke very high of him. It is but
natural that they tried to paint him with exaggeration.
Ancient Indian education and literature flourished during the time of the Harsha's rule.
Harsha distinguished himself equally in the arts of peace and war.
He was a great patron of learning. He himself was a good author and the three Sanskrit plays "Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika" exhibit his literary skill.

Harsha put in verse the story of Bodhisattva Jimuta-Vahana. But Jaydeva also praised Harsha as a poet.

From Hiuen-Tsangwe came to knowthat Harshausedto spend one-fourth ofhisrevenue for patronizing the scholars.

It is true that he patronized the University of Nalanda the greatest centre of Buddhist learning's.

He had a literarycircle inhis court of which we know the name of Banabhatta, the
famous author of Kadambari and Harsha Charita.
Therewerealsootherstarslike Mayura,Divakara,Jaysenaandthe Chinesescholar Hiuen-Tsang.

He was famous for his religious catholicity, benevolence and charities. At the royal lodge every day rations were provided for 1000 Buddhists monks and 500 Brahmanas.

Even if we accept the documents of Banabhatta and Hiuen-Tsang with a grain of salt, we cannot in any way underrate the impact and contribution of Harshavardhana over the early history of India.

Aftermath

Harsha died in 647, having ruled for 41 years. His empire died with him, disintegrating rapidly into small states.

In 648, Chinese Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty sent Wang Xuance to India in response to Harshavardhana sending an ambassador to China.

However once in India he discovered Harshavardhana had died and the new king (Arunashwa, the minister of Harsha, who usupred the throne) attacked Wang and his 30 mounted subordinates.

This led to Wang Xuance escaping to Tibet and raising the army of over Nepalese
mounted infantry and Tibetan infantry and attack on the Indian state.
The success of this attack won Xuance the prestigious title of the "Grand Master
for the Closing Court." He also secured a reported Buddhist relic for China.
Chinese history texts tends to over-play Wang's influence at ending the Harsha Empire.
Neither Bana's nor Xuanzang's account gives any details of this period. However, the greatness of Harsha has been questioned by many. His greatness is due to

Banabhatta and Yuan Chiang work to a great extent

Harsha could become great because of the availability of sources in the form of accounts of Banabhatta and Yuan Chiang which were not for other rulers of the time. Apart from

mere availability of account, Harsha also became great because both of them have also exaggerated the account about Harsha.

Banabhatta:
Being court poet of Harsha and a childhood friend, he was mainly focused to
emphasise achievements of Harsha and was silent about his failure.

For example, he didn't mention about the check that Harsha met with duringhis campaign towards Deccan by Chalukyaruler Pulakesin II, onthe banks of river Narmada.

His Harshacharitaistheonlysourceinmattersrelatedto Shashanka.While Harshaattacked Gaudabutitisnotclearwhetherhecouldavengemurder of his brother.

Thoughitmentionedthatthepolicesystemwasveryefficientandtherewasafine
system of spies throughout the state and secretly detected the crimes. There was a serious problem with law and order.

Even Yuan Chiang himself was robbed more than once.

Many scholars accused him of being biased in his writing and portrayed a dubious
accountofthelifeofhispatronin Harshacharita.Banahasexaggeratedmanyfacts and praised him too generously.

Bana's focus on his poetic skill also led to exaggeration.

Yuan Chiang:
His writing gives us information about social, political, economic, religious and
administrative aspects of life in India.
Though his writing is more trustworthy as it was written after he went back to
china and thus was too secure to be affected by the reactions his account might produce in India, still, it is affected at some places:

by author's preconceived ideas on the government and administration,
his early scholastic training,
the code of behaviour of his country and
His favour for Buddhism.

Given that Harsha turned out to be a great patron of Buddhism it was normal that Yuan Chiang mainly highlighted positive aspects of Harsha's rule.

Many of his account looks exaggerated:

He says that people are not subjected to forced labour, taxes are light, there is no infliction of corporal punishment.

However, forced labour (vishti), various kind of taxes etc were typical features of post-Gupta period society.

He also exaggerates by saying that Harsha was indefatigable in the discharge of his administrative routine, forgot sleep and food in his devotion to good work and spent most of the years in making tours of inspection throughout his dominions.

He said that during the Prayagraj assembly, Harsha gave everything in devotion, even his clothes.

He tells us that Harsha maintained a huge army. The number of foot soldiers was 5 lakh. The cavalry consisted of one lakh of horsemen. The elephant was roughly 60,000.

This wasclearlyan exaggerated account which isclearer from the fact that Harsha was defeated by Pulakesin II.

Further, in the quasi-feudal political system of this period,the existence of such a huge standing army is questioned.

Harsha's tolerance to other religions is also questioned:

At 1 st assembly at Kannauj, he published the doctrine of Mahayana.
There was an attempt on his life probably by his theological rival. In reaction, Harsha killed many Brahmanas.

This event shows the existence of religious conflict.

Yuan Chiang's claim of Harsha building many stupas is not substantiated
archaeologically.
Other limitations:
Society was divided on the line of varna system.

This period witnessed the ascendancy of varnasramadharma.

Status of Shudras and Vaishyas was depressed.
The position of women seems to have suffered a further decline during this
period. Remarriage of widows was not permitted particularly among the higher varnas. Sati and dowry was prevalent during this period.
Economically,there wasdeclinein tradeand urban life. The guildsof artisansand
merchants also began to lose their earlier importance.

No evidence shows that Harsha took any step to revive the trade and commerce.

No doubt, Harsha was great and a competent ruler. In fact, after Harsha's rule whole north India wasdisintegratedintoregionalkingdomsandapowervacuumwascreatedwhichwastobefil led only after invasion of Turks in India. It was Harsha who could maintain a central authority in almost entirenorth India. Banabhatta'sand Yuan Chiang'saccount thoughfilled with praises and even exaggeration, are most valuable sources of that period.

Role of Maukharis in the rise of Harsha Harsha was one of the most powerful rulers in ancient India. He ruled over an extensive empire for more than four decades and accomplished great achievements.

Theriseof Harshaasthemostpowerfulrulerof North Indiawasfacilitatedbyanumberoffactors and forces and among them the Maukharis of Kannauj had played an important role.

Maukharis were the ruling group in the Gangetic Valley with Kannauj as their capital.

During the post Gupta period, the Maukhari kingdom was the most powerful in North India.

Theydid not allowthe later Guptas to fulfill theirpolitical ambition of establishing their central authority over North India.

Because of this, a political vacuum had prevailed and this facilitated the rise of Harsha. He was not required to fight any major power in North India.

Harshvardhan's sister Rajyashri was married to the Maukhari king Grihavarman.

This matrimonial alliance had enhanced the prestige of Harsha's family and secured the support of the most powerful Dynasty of North India for the small kingdom of Thanesar.

The untimely death of Grihavarman had resulted in the integration of the kingdoms of

Kannauj and Thanesar.

Harsha'selderbrother Rajyavardhanwasassassinatedby Shashankaof Bengaljust when Grihavarman was killed.

There was no immediate successor to the throne of Kannauj and Harsha had to shoulder the responsibility of both kingdoms.

He transferred his capital from Thanesar to Kannauj and emerged as the overlord of North India.

The Maukharis had helped the Harsha's rise indirectly as well.

The later half of the fifth and sixth centuries was characterized by Huna invasions which posed a threat to Thanesar.

Maukhari king Ishanvarman had repeatedly defeated the Hunas.
After being crushed by the Maukharis, the Huns could not dare to invade India in the future. Harsha wasn't required to fight these feared enemies. Achievements of Harsha

Political achievements

Harsha established his central authority over North India. He was the 1 st to do so after almost 100 years. Since the fall of the Gupta Empire, no power had been able to firmly establish its control in North India.

Harsha was an efficient administrator and to be personal interest in the affairs of the

state. He created an efficient and effective administrative mechanism.

Harsha had brought almost all of north India under a single authority. This was a truly

remarkable feat because after the decline of the imperial Guptas, very few examples of political unity can be seen in North Indian history.

The politico administrative system of Harsha was based on liberal principles, he was a

ruler with a welfare outlook. He invested time and energy in improving the life of his subjects. Peace and order was maintained by him throughout the Empire.

Harsha's greatest achievement was the subjugation of the feudal forces. The decline of

the Guptas was followed by the emergence of feudal elements in North India these centrifugal forces were successfully subdued by Harsha and the feudatories were kept in check by him.

The significance of Harsha's political achievements becomes magnified when the

circumstances of his period are taken into consideration. Harsha sat on the throne at a time when his kingdom was in deep crisis. His elder brother, brother-in-law had been killedbyenemiesandhisfatherhaddiedofshockwhilehissisterhadbeentakenprisoner.

Notonly Thanesarbut also Kannaujfacedseriouschallenges.Harsharosetogiveoccasion and face these challenges squarely.

Militarily achievements

Harsha was not only an efficient administrator, but a gifted military general as well.

Harsha maintained a large Army consisting of infantry cavalry and elephant force.
He conquered the Magadh region and adopted the title of 'Magadhraja'.
Bengal and Gujarat were also conquered by him. His kingdom extended from Punjab in

the west to Bengal and Orissa in the east. River Narmada in the south and Himalayas in the north were his other frontiers.

The military conquest of Harsha but not based on barbaric methods. Because of this the

significance of his military achievements is multiplied.

Diplomatic achievements
Harsha was aware of the significance of diplomatic relations, maintaining friendly

relations not only with Indian rulers but also with the rulers of foreign lands.

Baskar Varman, the king of Kamrupa was his close friend and gifts were exchanged

between them regularly.

According to Chinese records, three ambassadors were sent by the Chinese emperor Tai

Tsung to the court of Harsha. The third one arrived just a few months after the death of Harsha. Harsha had also sent emissaries to the court of the Chinese emperor.

Cultural achievements
Harshawashimselfafinescholarandwasagreatpatronoflearningandreligionhewrote

three famous books:

'Nagananda'
'Ratnawali'
'Priyadarshika'

Banabhattalivedinhiscourtandauthoredhisbiography'Harshacharita'.'Kadambari'was

also written by him.

The Chinese traveller Huien Tsang visited the court of Harsha and live there. Harsha

organised a Buddhist assembly in Kannauj in honour of Huien Tsang in 643 CE. This assembly was for the promotion of Mahayana Buddhism.

The philanthropic activities of Harsha were also highly significant. According to Huien

Tsang, Harsha used to organise the Maha Moksha Parishad at Prayag once every five years. The fifth such assembly was attended by Huien Tsang in 643 CE. During these assemblies Harshausedtodonatewhateverhehadearnedduringthepreviousfiveyears.

Limitations of Harsha's achievements

Harsha was a great ruler and his achievements, both in peace and war were truly

remarkable. However, a closer examination of the politico administrative, socio cultural and economic life indicates that his reign was not without limitations.

Harsha had successfully subdued feudal elements but he did not eliminate them.

The centrifugal forces had remained in check only till the time that Harsha was

Within a few months after his death, North India lost its political unity and small regional principalities resurfaced.

Socio cultural life of Harsha's period was marked by downhill trends.

A number of social evils were present.

ii. Vaishyas also lost their social influence and social rigidity increased manifold.

Feudal outlook dominated social life and the liberalism of the earlier periods had disappeared.Harshacoulddonothingtorevitalisethesocio-culturallifeofhisage.

The economic life of Harsha's period was also marked by the elements of decline.

Secondary economic activities were no longer significant and agriculture became

commerce and industry.

The age of Harsha was marked by demonetisation and de-urbanisation. i. Accordingto Huien Tsang shells (cowries) and metal powder (churni) were used as media of exchange.

ii. Excavationshaverevealedthatcitieslike Ahichchatraand Kaushambiwere abandoned during the seventh century.

Huien Tsang and his teachings

He was a Chinese traveller who visited India during Harsha's reign between 629 to 645

CE. He left behind his observations in his book 'Si-Yu-Ki'.

Thisbookcontainsanumberofreferences about Harshawhichtendtoexaggerate his real achievements.

According to him, Harsha ruled over the five Indies.

This seems to suggest that his empire was extremely large.
But a closer examination of contemporary sources confirms that these five Indies

i. Kanyakubja (Kannauj)

ii. Saraswat (Punjab)

iii. Gauda (Bengal)

iv. Mithila (Bihar)

v. Utkal (Odisha)

According to him Harsha's army consisted of five lakh foot soldiers, one lakh cavalry and

60,000 elephants.

But other contemporary sources do not support this great military strength.
If Harshahadactuallycommandedsuchalarge Army,hewouldprobablynot have been defeated by the Chalukyan King Pulkesin II as confirmed by the Aihole inscription.

Huien Tsang says that the rate of land revenue and Harsha's Kingdom was 1/8 of the

produce but other sources indicate that the normal rate of revenue was 1/4.

He portrayed Harsha as a great builder but none of Harsha's monuments have been

discovered by archaeologists.

According to him, Harsha maintained a department of archives and records which used

to register every important event taking place in the Empire.

However no such records have been discovered.