Paper 1›Ancient India›Sources of Ancient Indian History

Sources of Ancient Indian History

Sources for the study of Ancient India

For the study of history of Ancient India we can use two different types sources - literary

sources as well as archaeological sources.

Literary Sources:

For the sake of convenience we can divide ancient literature in two groups-

indigenous literature and foreign literature.

Even indigenous literature can be divided into religious literature and secular

literature.

Likewise, even religious literature can be divided into different sections such as Vedic

literature, Post-Vedic Brahmanical literature, Buddhist literature and Jain literature.

Religious Literature

Vedic Literature -

There are four Vedas, The Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

Further, Each Veda consists of 4 Parts, the Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the

Upanishads.

Samhitas consist of hymns, prayers, charms and formulae for sacrifices.
Brahmanas consist of procedural details of rituals and sacrifices.
Aranyakas (forest books) consist of philosophical explanations of sacrifices.
Upanishads are works of pure philosophy, dealing with the metaphysical relationship

between man and god.

Among the Vedic texts, The Rig Vedic Samhita is the earliest. It was composed during the

Early Vedic Age. The rest of vedic literature was composed during the later vedic age.

From the Rig Vedic Samhita we mainly get information about the social, cultural and

economic conditions; but less information about the political conditions of the Early

Vedic Age.

The Samhitas of the Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda are significant source materials

for the study of the Later Vedic Age.

The Sama Veda Samhita is not equally important as most of its hymns have been

taken from the Rig Veda itself.

As the source material, the Atharva Veda has more importance because it gives us

information about the assimilation of the Aryan and Non-Aryan cultures.

After the Vedas, come the Brahmanas. From the Brahmanas we get information about the

sacrificial cult and ritualism in the life of the Vedic people.

The Aranyakas and the Upanishads give us information about the philosophical refinements

of the Vedic people.

Post- Vedic Brahmanical Literature

The six Vedangas- literally meaning, the limbs of the Vedas- their knowledge is

necessary to understand Vedic literature. These are such as Shiksha (phonetics),Kalpa (ritual), Jyotishya (astronomy), Nirukta (etymology), Vyakarna (grammar) and

Chhanda (meter).

The Kalpa Sutra can be divided into different sub- texts like Srauta Sutra, Griha Sutra

and Dharma Sutra.

From the Srauta Sutra, we get knowledge about the sacrificial cult.
Griha Sutra gives us information about family life and rituals.
From the Dharma Sutra, we gather information about contemporary political

and social ideals.

■ Dharma Sutra literature was composed by scholars like Baudhayana,

Apashtamba, Vashista and Gautama. The Dharma Sutra literature

focuses on social and religious aspects of that time.

Then, from the early Christian centuries, Smriti literature in the form of Shastras

started to be composed in this series. These were ancient Indian law books.

The Manusmriti is the first one. It gives us information about political, social &

cultural life during the post-Mauryan period in detail.

After Manusmriti a number of texts like Yajnavalkya Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti,

Naradasmriti, Parasarasmriti, etc. were compiled. They give us information

about the Gupta Age.

For the study of Ancient India, Puranas are also important source materials. There

are 18 Mahapurans and many more upapuranas. They give us information about the

chronology of kings.

The great epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata are important source materials for

the study of Ancient India. These epics cover a long period in Ancient India. They

were finally compiled in the Gupta age. So, the material culture reflected in the great

epics corresponds to the material culture of the Gupta age.

Non-Brahmanical Texts-

Along with the Brahmanical literature, Buddhist and Jain literature have also made their

contribution in the study of history. The earlier scholars gave priority to Brahmanical literature

only because they believed that it represented the core aspect of Ancient India. But in the

due course of time, Buddhist and Jain literature, which were composed in local dialects, also

gained importance.

It was concluded that the Brahmanical literature reflected the mood of Brahmanical elements

of the society. So, it was elitist in its approach. Although they have pro-Buddhist and Jain

doctrinal biases respectively, Pali and Prakrit literature reflected the popular mood and

conditions of the lower strata in society.

Buddhist texts like the Tripitakas- Sutta Pitaka, Vinay Pitaka and Abhidhamma

Pitaka, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Divyavadana, Ashokavadana etc. are important.

The Jataka stories are one of the fifteen books of the Khudakka Nikaya of the Sutta

Pitaka.

We get information about the economic, social, cultural and to a certain extent, even

political condition of India from these texts.

Likewise among Jain texts the Bhagavati Sutra, Kalpasutra, Parishistaparvan,

Obaisutra etc. are important. The Jain texts have not been used as extensively by

historians as the Buddhist texts.Secular Literature

Among secular literature, we find a number of texts like the Ashtadhyayi of Panini,

the earliest work on grammar in India.

The Arthashastra of Kautilya is a significant text on polity. Its time period is not very

clear. Its earlier portion corresponds to the Pre-Mauryan age and its later part

corresponds to the Post-Mauryan period. But, on the basis of similarity in the

terminologies used in the Ashokan inscriptions and the Arthashastra, we can

conclude that most of its parts correspond to the Mauryan age.

Although, neither any Mauryan king nor their capital, Pataliputra, has been

mentioned in this text. The Arthashastra is an encyclopedia for the study of Mauryan

age; although the information given by this text should be corroborated by other

sources as well.

Apart from that, we have a number of other secular texts, such as the Mahabhashya

of Patanjali, the Mudrarakshasha of Vishakadatta and the Nitishara of Kamandaka.

From the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, we get the information about the Post-Mauryan

age. Likewise, Vishakadatta gives us information about the rise of Chandragupta

Maurya to power. The Nitisara focuses on political ideas during the Gupta age.

Tamil Texts-

For the study of ancient Tamil Society, Sangam literature is an important source

material.

There are two types of Sangam poems- Akam and Puram.

Akam (the inner field) deals with the personal or human aspects, like Love, in

an abstract or metaphorical manner.

Puram (the outer field) deals with all other aspects of human experience such

as valor, ethics, benevolence and social life. A. K. Ramanujan describes the

Puram poetry as a kind of public poetry.

We can include Patinenmelkanakku- the eighteen major anthology series, which

include Ettuthokai, the eight anthologies, and Pattupattu, the ten idylls as well as

some portions of Tolkappiyam (a Tamil Grammar) into the Sangam literature.

Patinenkilkanakku-is a collection of eighteen poetic works created during the 'post

Sangam period' (between 100 - 500 CE).

Tiruvalluvar's Tirukkural and the epics- Silappadikaram and Manimekalai were

composed during the 5 th-6 th century CE.

Early medieval period Tamil literature includes intense devotional poetry of the Bhakti

Saints.

Telugu and Kannada literature becomes available from the early medieval period.

Foreign Accounts-

The Foreign accounts work as a supplement to the indigenous account. We can

underline two positive features in the foreign accounts; firstly, they give us information

about some regions about which our indigenous literature is almost silent.

Secondly, most of the foreign accounts are supposedly free from the ideological

prejudices which we find in the indigenous literature.● But, they have their limitations too. We can underline some distortion in facts and

figures in the foreign accounts because the foreign travelers were alien to the Indian

situation. They did not have the proper knowledge about India.

For example, Megasthenes divided Indian society into seven castes. He says

that slavery didn't exist in India.

Here also, for the sake of convenience, we can divide the foreign accounts into

different segments such as Greek and Roman accounts, Chinese accounts and the

accounts of Arabian travelers etc.

Greek and Roman Accounts-

Greek and Roman accounts are important source materials for the study of Ancient

India.

Herodotus was the first Greek author who mentioned India. But the companions of

Alexander, i.e. Aristobulus, Curtis, Annasicretes and Nearchus left an account of

early North West India.

Before the excavation of the Harappan cities, clear cut dates in Indian history were

supposed to start from 326 BCE.

When William Jones identified the name Sandrocottus with the Chandra

Gupta Maurya, the dates in Indian history became clear.

The Indica of Megasthenes is a significant source material for the study of the

Mauryan period but his account is not available today. Whatever information we get

from Indica, we receive it through the references given by classical authors of

subsequent periods such as Plutarch, Strabo, Pliny and Diodorus etc.

Texts like the 'Periplus of the Erythrean Sea' by an anonymous writer, are important

for the history of Indian Ocean trade.

Chinese Account-

The accounts of Fahian and Huien-Tsang are important source materials for the

study of the Gupta age and the period of Harsha respectively.

Yijin, a 7 th century Chinese traveler, lived at the Nalanda monastery for 10 years.

Arabian Account-

Among the Arabian accounts, the accounts of Suleiman, Al-Masudi, Ibn Khurdadab,

etc. are significant.

Suleiman talks about the Pala and the Prathihara kings in the 9 th century CE.

Likewise, Al-Masudi came to India in the 10 th century A.D. He mentions the

Rashtrakuta kings, whom he calls Vallabha Raja.

Critical analysis of Literary Sources

Literary sources definitely contribute a lot in the study of the history of ancient India. But we

should be cautious about the fact that literary sources have their own limitations.

First, there is this problem of extrapolation. It means that, while analysing a text, it

becomes difficult to identify the actual time period when different portions were added

in a text because some portions are added much later than the others.○ For example, the 10 th Mandala in the Rig Veda had been added during the

later Vedic period while the other mandalas belong to the early Vedic period.

Second, in ancient texts, there is some problem of stratification as well.
Third, we underline the element of subjectivity in a literary text. It means the text

mainly reflects the author's point of view.

Fourth, usually religious literature was composed from a religious point of view.

Looking for economic and political clues in these texts is problematic.

Recently, new dimensions have been added to the analysis of the literary source.

Firstly, there is an initiative for the sociological study of literary texts, ie. the

background of the author should be taken into consideration before his account is

examined.

Secondly, even inputs from other disciplines are being applied to the analysis of

literary sources, for example, the methods of analysis from economics, anthropology,

sociology, etc. are being used in the analysis of facts.

Likewise, on the basis of the methods of linguistics and computer analysis, the dates

in ancient India are being studied.

Archaeological Sources:-

Due to the limitations of literary sources mentioned above, archeological sources emerge as

a very significant source for the study of the history of ancient India. Archaeological sources

have certain advantages.

Firstly, they are supposedly objective in the sense that they have been lying on the

earth or beneath its surface for centuries without any human interference.

Secondly, for the study of the prehistoric period, the archaeological sources are the

only available source. Even for the study of the proto historic phase, the literary

source is available but it has not been deciphered; so we are relying entirely on the

archaeological evidences.

Lastly, the archaeological evidence is used for corroborating the information from the

literary source.

Recently, new dimensions have emerged in the study of archaeological evidence.

For example, methods from other disciplines such as Geography, Geology, Botany,

Computer Science, etc. are being applied to the analysis of archaeological evidence.

Secondly, the study of the environment is being emphasised in the study of

archaeological evidence.

We can take the example of the origin and decline of Harappan Civilisation.

Environmental factors are being given much weightage in the decline of the

Harappan Civilisation.

Finally, with the help of satellites, the study and tracing of archaeological evidence

has become easier.

But even the archaeological sources have their own limitations.

Firstly, although the archaeological evidence is objective in nature, the conclusions

drawn on its basis are subjective.

Secondly, we can't say that there is little human interference in archaeology.○ For example, some of the structures at Harappa are disfigured because the

bricks were stolen from the location. Likewise, some of the inscriptions of

Asoka have been uprooted from their original places.

The archeological evidences like artifacts, tools etc. have to bear with the elements

of nature- heat and moisture. So, instead of humans. nature interferes with the

archeological evidence.

Thirdly, royal inscriptions usually give a distorted version of the facts because they

were used as a tool for royal propaganda.

Finally, in place of horizontal excavation, vertical excavation has been given priority

in India; as horizontal excavation is too costly. Also, some of the locations have been

continuously inhabited since millennia. That's why we don't have a clear picture of

some specific periods.

Considering the limitation of both kinds of sources, we should try to corroborate one source

with the other. Yet, sometimes their interpretations will simply not align.

Different forms of archaeological evidences

Mounds
Inscriptions
Coins
Architecture and Monuments
Sculpture and paintings

Mounds:-

As an archaeological source, mounds have more significance. These mounds are usually

spread over a vast area. We can categorise the mounds in two groups:

Mono-cultural
Multi-cultural

From mono-cultural mounds, we usually find the evidence of a single culture.
But, from multi-cultural mounds, we find different layers which usually belong to

different cultures. In the course of the excavation, archaeologists catalogue the

artifacts collected from a site- potteries, instruments, weapons, artifacts, etc.

Inscriptions:-

The study of the ancient inscriptions is called the 'Epigraphy'. Inscriptions are a very

important source for the study of ancient cultures. We can classify inscriptions in two

categories:

Royal inscriptions
Private inscriptions

As the Harappan inscriptions have not been deciphered yet, so Ashokan inscriptions

seem to be the earliest.○ On the basis of Ashokan inscriptions, we get information about the expansion

of the Mauryan Empire, the administrative structure under Ashoka, the policy

of Dhamma and the personal life of Ashoka.

After Ashoka, most of the inscriptions have been composed in the form of Prashastis

(panegyrics).

For example, the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, the Girinar inscription

of Rudradaman, the Allahabad inscription of Samudra Gupta etc.

Some of the royal inscriptions were issued on the copper plates. These copper plates

were associated with land grants.

Through these land grant inscriptions, we get information about contemporary

social and economic life. Indian feudalism has been defined on the basis of

the study of these land grants.

The private inscriptions can be often found near the temples.

Through these inscriptions we get information about social and religious life.

They are mostly donative and commemorative inscriptions.

Coinage:-

The scientific study of coins is called 'Numismatics'. On the basis of ancient coinage, we get

the information about economic, social, cultural and political life.

Punch marked coins were the earliest coins in circulation in India. But the name of

the kings has not been mentioned on these coins. So, these were possibly issued by

merchant guilds.

It was the Indo-Greek Kings, who issued coins in the name of kings for the first time.
Coins became an important source for the study of different states.

We know about the Mitra and Panchala rulers of the Gupta period on the

basis of their coins.

On the basis of coins, we can examine the economy and cultural activities of the

ancient people.

The use of a large number of coins in a particular age and the purity of the

metal used in making those coins give a hint towards economic prosperity in

that period.

The name and the figure of a particular God on the coins give us information

about religious life.

Likewise, the size and appearance of the coins show cultural advancement.

Architecture and Monuments:-

They highlight the development of art in a particular period. The well-planned Harappan

Cities, Ashokan pillar edicts, Stupas, Caves, Artificial lakes like the Sudarshan Lake,

temples, chaityas, viharas etc, are the examples of the ancient architecture.

We can categorise the temple architecture of ancient and medieval India into three

different styles, such as:

Nagra Style
Dravida Style
Vesara Style.Sculpture and Paintings:-

Three different schools of sculpture appeared during the ancient period.

Mathura School
Gandhara School
Amravati School

Starting from the Stone Age cave paintings of Bhimbetka, the Indian subcontinent has had a

glorious tradition of painting based on all kinds of religious as well as secular themes.

Primary and secondary source

The sources for the study of history can be divided in two categories - Primary and

Secondary sources.

The artifacts or literature contemporary to the period, which we have to study, are

categorized as the primary sources.

For example, the seals and terracotta figurines in the study of Harappan

civilization; Harshcharita of Banabhatta for the study of the Harsha Period

should be placed in the category of primary source.

On the other hand, Secondary sources represent the developed form of primary

source. If some scholar writes an account on a certain period on the basis of primary

sources and other scholars use that account for the study of the aforementioned

period; it can be categorized as a secondary source.

If Irfan Habib writes about Mohmmad bin Tuglaq on the basis of the account

of Barni, his writing can be used by other scholars as a secondary source.

Exploration and Excavation of the archaeological source

Exploration- The first challenge before an archaeologist is how to explore the

archaeological sites. To discover sites in the open field is known as field archaeology. There

are two different kinds of methods for the exploration of sites - Traditional

methods and New methods.

Traditional Methods

Chance discovery- An archaeologist inadvertently comes across a site, for example

Cunningham discovered a Harappan site in this manner.

Literary Account - Sometimes archaeologists follow the description given in a text for

the discovery of a site. For example, B.B. Lal started excavation on the site of

Hastinapur on the basis of description given in the Mahabharata.

New Methods

Aerial survey - An aerial survey is carried out over a large region using technologies

like Li DAR, so that available sites can be discovered.

Use of satellites - Nowadays, satellites with thermal and infrared capabilities are

being used to identify potential sites of interest.

Chemical examination - Even chemical examination of soil constituents gives a hint

that there may have been a human settlement in the region in the remote past.4. Computers - Recently even computers are being used for discovering archaeological

artifacts under the earth's crust. Use of GIS and seismology is very common.

Other important techniques - to analyse an archaeological site and the artifacts - are

radiocarbon dating, thermo luminescence, uranium/thorium dating, palaeobotany,

palynology (the analysis of pollen and spores) etc. We do microwear analysis to

understand the possible functions of a tool.

Excavation- Archaeological excavation can be divided into two categories.

Vertical excavation- A limited part of the mounds excavated vertically. It gives us

information about the chronology and time period of different cultures on a single site.

Horizontal excavation- Under this category, a vast excavation on a site is carried out

which gives a larger picture of the culture concerned.

For gaining proper knowledge of a culture, both types of excavation are required. But vertical

excavation has been given priority in India as the horizontal excavation is very costly and it

creates an additional challenge of rehabilitation of the population living over the site?Did ancient Indians have a sense of

historiography?

View I

Many scholars described the Indian past as a static society that registered no historical

change, and therefore it had no use for recording the past and used only cyclic time.

Alberuni had said that Indians had no sense of history and any query resulted in

story- telling.

Early Colonial historians like V.A. Smith and H.H.Wilson said that art of

historiography was absent in ancient India.

Comparisons were made with ancient Greek and Chinese whose history was recorded by

historians in systematic manner.

In China, chronicles of dynasties and rulers were maintained but such a trend was

absent in ancient India.

In India, there is absence of literature which can be described specifically as

historical writing till 7 th century AD.

Though there are historical records inherent in some literature but they cannot be

considered as historical document.

7 th century AD onwards, a number of historical biographies were written like

Harshacharita by Banabhatta but many of these were not treated as history writing

because of the absence of explanations and critical assessments.

View II (Refuting View I)

Many Indian historians have defined what the sense of history is.

According to Romila Thapar, the "sense of history" is in fact the consciousness of

past events presented in an organised framework.

But what event is considered relevant varies from one society to another and the

forms in which they are presented, also vary from one society to another.

Under this definition, it cannot be said that ancient Indians were devoid of the

sense of history.

It is not necessary that the document must be a purely historical document.

The forms of presentation could be mixed- genealogical records,

mythological narratives, historical accounts, etc.

There is one significant element of history, i.e. time, and ancient Indians were

well aware of it. They followed both cyclic and linear systems of time.

Though there may not have been a conventional form of historical writing, there are

nevertheless many texts that reflect the historical consciousness of Ancient

Indians.

There were three distinct historiographies (ways of explaining the past): Bardic

tradition, the tradition of the Puranas and Shramanic traditions.

The historiography of the bards or sutas lay in their narrating events of heroes in the

form of ballads and epic fragments.● In both the Puranic and Shramanic traditions, there was a gradual change in form,

information and commentary, moving towards creating a historic tradition.

Examples

The sense of history of ancient Indians is manifested in the following:

Later Vedic texts:

Later Vedic texts contain certain types of compositions that reflect a historical

consciousness. These include the dana-stutis, gathas and akhyanas.

All these types of compositions were directly connected with the performance of

sacrifices (yajnas), showing historical consciousness:

The dana-stutis are hymns praising the generosity and exploits of kings.
The gathas are songs in praise of kings, sung on the occasion of certain sacrifices.
Akhyanas are narrative hymns in dialogue form, referring to mythical and possibly

historical events.

Puranas:

They reflect a strong sense of history and time.
Puranas consist of 5 elements 'Panch Lakshanas'

Sarga:- The creation of the universe
Pratisarga:- Re-creation after destruction
Vamsa:- Genealogy of the sages, gods, and kings
Manvantara:- Cosmic cycles, history of the world during the time of one

patriarch

Vamsanucaritam:- Account of royal dynasties dynasty, including the

Chandravanshi and Suryavanshi kings

Epics (Itihasa):

The epics are known as Itihasa and are supposed to record things that actually

happened (whether they did happen in the way in which they are described is

another issue).

Bards (sutas and magadhas):

The historiography of the bards known as sutas and magadhas lay in their narrating

events of heroes in the form of ballads and epic fragments.

The poets and bards of the ancient Tamil land who eulogized their royal patrons can

also be seen as creators and transmitters of a historical tradition.

Mythico-historical account:

The Buddhist Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, which offer a mythico-historical account

of how Buddhism traveled to Sri Lanka, represent a historical tradition as well.

Mention may also be made of sacred biographies in the Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu

traditions.

Eras:

Conceptions of various eras like the Saka era, Vikram era, Gupta era etc also reflect

consciousness of time and history.Royal biographies and inscriptions:

Royal biographies and inscriptions, even though eulogical (Prashasti containing an

account of the king's exploits, usually with a view to shower praise on him) reflect

historical tradition too:

Prashasti of Samudragupta by his court poet Harisena
Harshacharita of Banabhatta,
Ramacharita of Sandhyakaranandin,
Vikramadevacharita of Bilhana (Vikramaditya VI, Chalukya king of Kalyani).
Chronological description in inscriptions of the Kings like Hathigumpha inscription,

Ashokan inscriptions, Allahabad inscription, Junagarh inscription etc.

Royal archives to preserve official records:

The Arthashastra and the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mention royal archives

preserving official records in every Indian city (for e.g. Royal archives of

Harshavardhana).

Al-Biruni's 11 th century Tahqiq-i-Hind refers to the archives of the Shahi kings of

Kabul.

Unfortunately, no such ancient archives survive.

Conclusion

The intellectuals of every age and society select the aspects of the past they

consider important and interpret and present them in their own way.

Since ancient and modern societies differ from each other in so many respects, their

ways of looking at the past were different.

While there is evidence of different kinds of historical traditions in ancient and early

medieval India, these traditions were very different from our modern notions of

history.

Modern historians distinguish between myth and history, ancient texts

do not.

The historical traditions of ancient India were connected with religious,

ritualistic, and court contexts.

History in our times is an academic discipline based on research, linked to

modern institutions such as universities. The ways in which the past was

understood and represented in ancient texts are very different from the

methods, techniques, and goals of historical research today.

In conclusion it can be said that although standardised history as a developed

subject was absent, the sense of history writing was definitely present in ancient

India.Historiography of Ancient India

The study of Indian history started in the 18 th century with the establishment of British

rule in India. A need was felt to understand the native culture, traditions and laws in

order to administer the country well. It was in this context that research in Indian history

started.

As the discipline developed, new perspectives emerged for studying Indian history.

Between the 18 th and 20 th century there were different approaches in the study of Indian

history known as the

Orientalist School,
Utilitarian School,
Nationalist School,
Marxist School and the
Revisionist School.

The first two schools together are known as the Imperialist school as well.

The Imperialist School

The Orientalist School - The study of ancient history of India was initiated by some

British scholars like William Jones, Henry Cole Brooke, Charles Wilkins, Alexander

Cunningham etc.

These scholars explored the Indian past and culture e.g. William Jones led the foundation

of Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784.

This provided a crucial forum for the Oriental studies.
He translated a number of texts, like the 'Abhigyan Shakuntalam' of Kalidasa, which

reached a wide European readership.

The sustained efforts of these scholars- in exploring the ancient Indian texts and

cultures contributed a lot in the study of Indian history.

Contributions-

Ancient Sanskrit texts were brought to the light by these scholars.

They produced critical/systematic editions of many ancient texts.

Cunningham laid the foundation of the study of Indian architecture.

Archaeological Survey of India camé into existence in 1871.

The systematic study of ancient Indian history was initiated by the orientalist

scholars.

E.g. James Princep deciphered the Brahmi Script.

Limitations-

They had many preconceived ideas about India.

They argued that the Indians were more inclined towards religion and

spiritualism, and material life didn't interest them as much.

This argument was an indirect explanation for the backwardness of India.● They were interested mainly in exploring Sanskrit texts but they neglected the Pali

and Prakrit texts which reflect the life of common people more closely.

Utilitarian School - The rise of this school was due to the industrial revolution in

Europe (Britain).

The Industrial revolution was not only a material change, but it brought a complete

change in British society. These changes touched academia also where the

systematic study of Indian history was going on.

This school opposed the Orientals as it believed that the orientalist scholars

had given an undue praise to the Indian past.

We can include scholars like James Mill, John Stuart Mill and Thomas Macaulay

in this group.

James Mill was critical of the Indian people and their cultures.
He claimed that contemporary as well as ancient India were barbarous

and anti-rational.

According to him, the Indian Civilisation showed no concern for political

evolution and India had been ruled by a series of despots.

Limitations-

This school distorted Indian history.
James Mill communalised the Indian history by dividing it into the Hindu, Muslim

and British periods.

James Mill was the first scholar to propose the 'theory of oriental despotism' which

was later developed by Karl Marx.

In other words, he tried to prove that India was ruled by a number of despots

right from the ancient times; she had no tradition of democracy.

In this way he tried to justify the despotic and alien character of British

rule.

This school also emphasised that all the so called 'Golden Ages' in Indian history

were periods of foreign rule.

This was a gross mis-characterisation of the Indian past.

Nationalist School

As a reaction to the imperialist school, a new school with a nationalist approach emerged.

Scholars like R.C Majumdar, Prof. Hem Chandra Raychowdhary, A.S. Altekar, K.P

Jaiswal etc. belonged to this school.

They criticised the utilitarian ideas about India and tried to focus on certain political

and cultural achievements of ancient India.

Initially inspired by the 19 th century social reforms movement, the Indian historical

scholarship gradually became overtly anti-imperialist-

They rejected the periodisation of Indian history into the Hindu period and

Muslim periods, but retained the basis of division for such periodisation

i.e. the conquest of North India by Muhammad Ghori and the foundation of

Turkish rule was regarded as the beginning of medieval period (they gave the

terms "ancient' and medieval' for the periodisation of Indian history).● As the Indian demand for political rights and a representative government grew

stronger during the 1920 s, nationalist scholars began to attribute the highest

achievements in the field of political thought and practice to ancient Indians,

thus, imbibing confidence, and self-respect among the Indians.

E.g. parallels were drawn between Kautilya's social and economic policies

and social legislation of Bismarck.

Republics of the Mahajanpad era were compared with the ancient Greek

republican city states.

Limitations-

They were unable to escape the Euro-Centric view of Indian history -

Although they superficially rejected the utilitarian division of India's past into

Hindu, Muslim and British, they retained its basis.

They also mis-characterised Hinduism by trying to view it as a

monolithic, organised and homogenous religion.

■ Thus they completely ignored the fact that Hinduism was at best an

umbrella term for various strands of the Indian religious thoughts,

beliefs and practices present in the Indian subcontinent.

They unconsciously supported the cause of Hindu chauvinism - while trying to

glorify the Indian past, they focused primarily on Hindu achievements, while ignoring

others.

They were too focused on Sanskrit literature and neglected Pali and Prakrit

literature.

They remained fixated on political developments and outstanding cultural

achievements but neglected the history of the common people.

Marxist School

DD Kosambi laid the foundation of the Marxist school in India. Later, scholars like RS

Sharma, DN Jha and BNS Yadava got associated with this school. Irfan Habib and other

scholars of the Aligarh school also contributed in developing this school of thought. From the

1960's onwards this school brought a major revolution in the study of ancient history. We can

underline these changes in the following manner:

These scholars tried to establish the relationship between the basic structure and

the superstructure.

The Economic structure is supposed to be the basic structure while the

political, social structure, culture and ideas are supposed to be the

superstructure.

The basic structure (economic change) was recognised as a major factor

behind the changes occurring in history.

DD Kosambi suggested the need to identify the major turning points in the life of

people, which could form the basis for the periodisation of early Indian history.

In his view, changes in history are closely linked with the material and

technological changes.

E.g. The beginning of the use of iron in agriculture in the Ganga Valley

created an agriculture surplus which led to the Second Urbanisation and the

emergence of territorial kingdoms.● Such crucial changes can provide a rational basis for the periodisation of Indian

History.

Thus, it is possible to argue that the medieval period doesn't begin with the

advent of Turkish rule. Rather, it begins with the end of Gupta rule towards

the end of the 6 th century CE, which marks the beginning of some significant

developments in Indian society, on account of land grants.

Revisionist School

In due course of time, Marxist historiography received a challenge from a number of scholars

known as the revisionist scholars.

For example, Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin revised the earlier

views about the Harappan civilisation.

D.K Chakravarty challenges the Marxist historiography by trying to

undermine the role of iron in the Second Urbanisation.

Similarly, B.D. Chattopadhyay and Ranvir Chakravarty countered the views

given by R.S Sharma and his group on the decline of trade, money economy

and urban centers in the early Medieval Period.

Recently some important contemporary issues like environment, gender

discrimination as well as exploitation of weaker sections have become a part of

the historiography.

Thus, making the study of history a more diverse and multi-faceted domain.

This is a welcome development.

More recently, some scholars, guided by the Hindutva agenda, are trying to

propagate new theories in Indian historiography.

But they are not professional historians and the views propounded by them

have not been substantiated by proper research. So, presently such views

can't be taken seriously.

But if this line of thought continues and does some proper research work, an

alternative school of historiography may emerge in the future.Short- notes: (150 Words)

Ancient inscriptions as a source of study.
Ancient Coinage as the source material.
Prehistoric archeology.
Foreign Accounts as the source of study for Ancient India.
The account of Huen-Tsang for the study of the Harsha period.

Long Question: (250 Words)

Ancient people in India did not have a sense of history. So history writing is a grand

contribution of Islam in India. Examine the above statement.

Examine the comparative importance of the archaeological and literary sources.
When the literature remains silent, archaeological sources speak. In light of the

above statement underline the importance of archaeological sources.

Try to reconstruct the Mauryan administration on the basis of the comparative study

of Kautilyan Arthasasthra, Megasthenese's Indica and Ashokan inscriptions.

Answer 1

Some critics believed that early Indians did not have a sense of history. After all, we can

hardly find any text in Ancient India which can be taken as a text on the subject of history in

the true sense. So, according to them, history-writing is a grand contribution of Islam in India.

We find that a number of factors contributed to history-writing under the Muslim rulers in

India.

Firstly, recording the events associated with the life of the Caliph and the prophet is

considered a pious work in Islam.

Secondly, Muslim scholars took interest in recording the events associated with the

life of sultans.

Thirdly, Muslim rulers patronised scholars and encouraged recording of events under

their rule.

Lastly, the Turks introduced paper in India (13 th century) which encouraged writing in

general.

So, we can say that the Muslim rule in India definitely contributed to the field of the history

writing.

On the other hand, there is a charge against the Ancient Indian People that they didn't

develop any scientific method for the calculation of time. They didn't go in a linear direction in

calculating the time period, rather they developed the concept of cyclic change of time. But

when we observe minutely we come to another conclusion.

We find that the people in Ancient India definitely had a sense of history. Although

their approach was different from that of the Ancient Greeks and modern scholars.

Unlike modern authors they never tried to establish a causative relation in recording

events.

In fact the object of writing in Ancient India has clearly been stated in texts like

Mahabharata. According to this, the object of writing should be to attain the four

Purusharthas.

Also, Huien Tsang informs us that during the ancient period, in every region, some

scribe was appointed to record the events under a state. So we find that even the

people in ancient India had a sense of history.● In texts like the Puranas, ancient scholars have tried to clarify the chronology of the

rulers.

Above all, we shouldn't try to judge ancient Indian scholars on the model of classical

writers like Herodotus and Livi.

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