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Mahajanapada

Mahajanapada Period (600- 400 BCE)

Sources for the Study 1) Literary sources

A larger corpus of literary sources is available for the study of this period. These literary texts include religious and non-religious texts, as well as foreign accounts.

Religious texts can further be categorised into the Brahmanic, Buddhist and Jaina literature.

This multiplicity of sources facilitates a comparative study of thisperiod,thus creating a better picture of the contemporary situation. a) Religious literature Brahmanic literature

This includes Upanishads, six Vedangas including 'Kalpasutras' along with Griha- sutras, Dharma-sutras, Shrota-sutras etc.

The Dharma sutras written by Baudhayana, Apashtamba, Gautama and Vashista are important sources for the study of this period.

But, the Brahminic literature represents the viewpoint of only the upper strata of society.

Buddhist and Jaina literature

Buddhist literature consists of 'Tripitakas' i.e. Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

They throw light on the socio-economic and political institutions of the time.

Likewise Jaina literature includes 12 Angas (which were compiled in the 5 th 6 th centurybasedon the 14 Purvas,whicharenowlost),Bhadrabahu Charita,Kalpa-sutra

(biography of Jain Tirthankars, attributed to Bhadrabahu, but compiled much later), Parishishta Parvan (written inthe 12 th centuryby Hemachandra gives ahistoryof the early Jain teachers and certain details of the political history) etc.

Although a Buddhist or a Jain bias in this viewpoint cannot be ruled out, the Buddhist and Jaina texts were compiled in Pali and Prakrit respectively and they reflect the life of the lower strata of society more closely.

b) Non-religious literature

Some sections of the Arthasastra (by Kautilya) which belonged to the pre- Maurya period, throw light on this period, as well.

Ashtadhyayi of Panini (c. 5 th - 4 th BCE) is a work on Sanskrit grammar.

He sums up the rules of Sanskrit grammar in 3996 sutra (short condensed instructive statements).

Heinspiredlatergrammarianslike Katyayana(4th century BCE;Varttika Kara) and Patanjali (2 nd century BCE; Mahabhashya).

In order to illustrate the grammar rules, Panini indirectly refers to many aspects of his time including places, people, customs, coins, measures and weights, institutions etc.

c) Foreign accounts

As Persian and Greek invasions took place (in the North-Western part of the subcontinent)duringthis period,we get a glimpse of the conditions in North-Western region through the works of Greek and Latin writers.

These authors include Herodotus (he wrote 'Historica', in which he talks about the trade between India and Persia) and those Greek scholars who came to India with

Alexander (Aristobulus, Nearchus etc.)

Aristobulus accompanied Alexander on his campaign to India. Aristobulus' account of

Alexander's conquests 'History of War' which he started to write during the Indian campaign, is now lost but it was (together with a biography of Alexander by Ptolemy and the Indiké by Nearchus) among the most important sources of Arrian's 'Anabasis', our main source for the career of the Macedonian conqueror.

Aristobulus' work is also quoted by other authors, but there are indications that not all quotations are authentic.

This source, therefore, remains a bit mysterious.

These Greek accounts are the only source for the study of the North-West.

When William Jones identified 'Sandrocottus' (the term used by the Greek scholars in their accounts) as none other than Chandra Gupta Maurya, the chronology of ancient Indian history became more clear.

2) Archaeological evidence As the texts were given a written form much later, there is a certain problem of authenticity with them. So, the archaeological evidence becomes useful in this scenario.

a) The Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Sites:

They are associated with the Mahajanapada period.
There are almost 1500 sites from Taxila in the North-West to Tamluk in Bengal and Amravati in Andhra Pradesh.

The NBPW culture represents an advanced stage of material culture.

It is a wheel made luxury ware.
It is well baked and well-levigated.
It has a glossy surface.
It is sometimes as thin as 1.5 mm.
The wares include different shapes of vases, lids, dishes and bowls.

This name is misleading though, as it is not confined to North India; it is not always black; and it may not be always polished. b) Punch Marked Coins

The use of these coins, in the Indian subcontinent, started around 500 BCE.
These were either copper or silver coins which were possibly issued by merchants' guilds rather than kings because they do not contain any royal legends or images.

These coins contained various types of pictures punched on them.
Coins belonging to the Nanda period had been unearthed from Golakpur near Patna.

Early state formation in the Buddha Age The emergence of Mahajanapadas was the result of a long drawn process of state formation that materialised in several stages. To appreciate the whole process, it is important to start at the beginning.

The material and socio-economic changes up to the 6 th century BCE had a wide ranging impact on the political situation.

Thecontemporarypoliticalconditionsweremarkedbytheemergenceofandstruggle between the Janapadas (Monarchical Kingdoms) amongst themselves and Jana

Sanghas (Republican States).

This conflict was merely a part of the larger process of state-formation. We need to consider more basic factors stimulating change, while continuity is also to be emphasised.

The new technological changes on account of the use of iron led to a substantial agrarian surplus.

This surplus promoted proliferation and specialisation of crafts as well as trade in those crafts and goods (agrarian and non-agrarian).

A class of merchants, artists, craftsmen/craftswomen, service providers etc. emerged, who acted as an intermediary between the rural and urban set-up and catered to their respective needs of goods and services.

The opening of new trade routes gave a boost to further material changes resulting in the growth of urban centres.

The increased specialisation in crafts and settling up of craft and trade
specific centres are noted from the literary sources.
Socially,the Vaishyasandevenprivileged Kshatriyasquestionedthesuperiorposition of the Brahmins in the prevailing social hierarchy.

In religion, the emerging heterodox sects both opposed and incorporated the spirit of new material changes taking place in the society.

In this way, they challenged the status quo.
Emergenceofsuchalargenumberofheterodoxsectsclearlyindicatesthat the social norms and values were in a continuous flux.

It was the combined effect of these conflicts and upheavals that led to early state formation in the 6 th century BCE. There was not one typical way of life but a set of diverse ways of lives.

This is reflected in the diversity of the political landscape.
While some tribal polities evolved into monarchical kingdoms, others took the evolutionary path towards republicanism. These republics differed from the monarchies in several ways.

In the monarchies, the king claimed to be the sole recipient of entire taxation revenue. In the republics, this claim was advanced by every tribal oligarch, who was known as the Raja.

Each one of the 7707 Lichchhavi rajas (perhaps ruling families of Lichchhavi) maintained his storehouse and administrative apparatus.

Every monarch maintained his regular standing army and did not permit any group to keep arms within his territory.

But, in a tribal oligarchy, each Raja was free to maintain his own little army under his Senapati, so that each one of them could compete with the other.

The Brahmnas exercised great influence in monarchy.

Buttheyhadnoplaceintheearlyrepublics,nordidtheyrecognizethesestates in their law-books.

Finally,themaindifference betweenamonarchyanda republiclayinthefact thatthe latter functioned under the leadership of oligarchic assemblies of Rajas.

These Rajas met once a year to transact political businesses and elect a leader (Ganapati/Ganaraja) with a fixed tenure.

Executive power was in the hands of a much smaller council. Republics of the Buddha Age

Duringthe 6th century BCEthetribalpolitieswereslowlyconsolidatingundera more organised and complex governance system.

Some of these evolved into monarchies while others emerged as republican systems.

The republican system of government existed either in the Indus basin or in the foothills of the Himalayas in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

The republics in the Indus basin may have been the remnants of the Vedic tribes although some monarchies may have been followed by the republics.

In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, people were possibly inspired by the old ideals of tribal equality which did not give much prominence to a single raja.

In Buddhist literature, many of these non-monarchical states have been mentioned.

The Sakyas of Kapilvastu, who had acknowledged the suzerainty of Kosala in thelatterhalf ofthe 6th century BCE, occupied atract of land inthe Himalayan foothills near Nepal.

Their capital Kapilvastu has been identified with Piprahwa (in the Siddharthnagar district of U.P.) by some scholars, whereas others identify it with Tilaurakut in Nepal.

Lumbini, the birth place of Buddha, seems to be their eastern capital.

The Koliyas of Ramagrama were the eastern neighbours of the Sakyas.
Other tribal republics were the Bulis of Alakappa, the Kalamas of Kesaputta, the Moriyas of Pipphalivana and the Bhaggas of Sumsumagiri.

There were perhaps two types of Ganas/Sanghas,

Those that consisted of only one clan e.g. Shakyas and
Those that were the confederation of more than one clans e.g. Vajji.

The Administrative machinery was simple.

The aristocratic council of each Gana/Sangha (republic) consisted of Rajas.
Such a council had sovereign powers.

This assembly did not include women.

The aristocratic council met in a hall called 'Santhagara'.

Each Raja had an Uparaja (Vice-King, perhaps the elder son), Senapati (Commander) and Bhandagarika (treasurer).

We hear of as many as eleven courts in the hierarchical order for trying the same case one after another in the Lichchhavi republic, but this seems to be too good to be true.

In the republics, real power lay in the hands of tribal oligarchies.

In the republics of Shakyas and Vajjis, the ruling class belonged to the same clan or the same Varna (Kshatriya).

Brahmans were not included in this group.

In thepost Mauryatimes,in the republicsof the Malavas and the Kshudrakas, the Kshatriyas andthe Brahmans weregivencitizenship,but slaves andhired labourers were excluded from it.

In any case, certain states in the age of the Buddha were not ruled by the hereditary kings but by persons who were responsible to assemblies.

Although the people living in these ancient republics may not have shared political power equally, the republican tradition in the country is as old as the age of the Buddha.

Reasons for the decline of the Republics

They were situated in less productive areas as compared to the regions of contemporary monarchies.

It is easier to sow dissension among the jealous members of such councils. Ajatsatru used similar tactics against Vajjis.

That's why they could not sustain the challenge posed by the formidable armies of the contemporary monarchies.

They didn't enjoy the full support of their people.

In fact, these were not republics, rather, these were oligarchies. i.e. a system in which power is concentrated in the hands of a few elites.

These republics could not riseabove thetrappings of thecontemporarymonarchies.

Namesofvariousofficerbearersintheserepublicsweresimilartothose under the monarchies.

These republics imposed the same restrictions on their people as the contemporary monarchs.

For example, all the residents of Malla republic were ordered to stand
on the streets to welcome Buddha.
The history of the Ganas of ancient India spans roughly a thousand years. Samudragupta's campaigns finally wiped them out and assigned the remaining republics to the political insignificance.

Some of the Ganas (e.g. Malavas, Arjunyanas etc.) are mentioned on the coins of the early centuries CE.

In the 4 th century CE, Chandragupta I married a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.

Samudragupta, was called Lichchavi-dauhitra (grandson of the Lichchavis).

This suggests that up to that point, Lichchavis were a political force worth aligning.

Reasons for evolution of the Janapadas into the Mahajanapadas Thesurplusfromvariouseconomicactivitieswastaxedtofundanelaboratebureaucracy and standing armies, which consolidated the state control over its territory.

This perpetuates a virtuous cycle between a stronger state and better resource mobilisation from the area under its control.

Stronger Janapadas acquired territory from the neighbouring Janapadas in warfare.
Availability of iron facilitated the development of war weapons in certain Janapadas, thus giving them an edge over the others.

Janapadas with stronger economic conditions and abundant natural resources subdued their neighbours. Thus, 16 Mahajanapadas evolved in due course of time.

The 16 Mahajanapadas The most systematic and detailed information on contemporary the political situation comes from the Buddhist work 'Anguttra Nikaya'.

According to this text, there emerged 16 Mahajanapadas in North India immediately before the time of Buddha.

The Jaina text, Bhagwati Sutra, also mentions 16 Mahajanapadas, which somewhat differs with the list created from the Anguttra Nikaya.

Apart from these, there must have been smaller principalities and chiefdoms.

A brief description of these Mahajanapadas has been given below.

The state of Anga seemsto have comprised the presentdaydistrictsof Bhagalpur and

Munger in Bihar.

The river Champa formed the boundary between Anga in the East and Magadha in the West.

Itscapital Champa(alsoknownas Malini)wasoneofthemostimportantcities.

It was located on the confluence of the Ganga and Champa (Chandan)
rivers.

Merchants are described to have sailed from this location to Suvarnabhumi (South-East Asia).

Thisstatewasabsorbedintheexpanding Magadhakingdomby King Bimbisara sometime in the later part of 6 th century BCE.

The state of Magadha comprised the districts of Patna and Gaya in the beginning.

Its initial capital was Grihvrij near modern Rajgir, which was surrounded by Ganga, Son and Punpun rivers from North, West and East respectively and the Vindhyan spurs on the south.

It started to gradually absorb many neighbouring states and emerged as an Empire by the middle of the 5 th century BCE.

Thekingdomof Kasiconsistedoftheregionaroundthepresentdaydistrictof Varanasi

of UP Its capital was at Banaras.

The Jatakastoriesindicate that Kasiand Kosalahadalongconflict and Kasiwas eventually absorbed into Kosala.

The Kingdom of Kosala comprised a large part of present day Eastern U.P.

Its capital was at Shravasti (also a modern district).
Another important city (and perhaps second capital) was Ayodhya or Saket.
The state of Kosala aimed for supremacy in North India by matrimonial alliances and military aggression.

The conquest of Kasi sometime before the birth of the Buddha turned
it into a powerful state.
Under the leadership of Prasenjit (contemporary of Buddha), it
extendeditssupremacyover the Sakyasof Kapilvastuand the Kalamas of Kesaputta.
A matrimonial alliance was stitched between Prasenjit and Bimbisara,
but it unravelled with the ascent of Ajatsatru on the throne of Magadha.

However, the political power of Kosala petered out under Vidudabaha.

The Vajji confederacy lay to the north of the Ganges and extended as far as the Nepal

hills.

It was a confederacy of tribal chieftains with distinct characteristics.
The confederacy consisted of eight or nine clans of which the Videha, the Lichchavis, the Janatrikas and the Vajjis were the prominent ones.

Vaishali was the capital of both the Lichhavi clan and the Vajji confederacy.

The Mallas were also a confederacy of possibly nine clans.

It was located to the west of Vajji confederacy.
The Buddhist literature informs us that the Mallas had divided their territory into smaller areas, two of the nine Malla groups had their capitals at Pava and Kusinara respectively.

The former has been identified with Pavapuri in Bihar and the latter with Kasia in Deoria district of U.P.

The territory of Chedis lay near the Yamuna, in the eastern part of Bundelkhand

region.

The capital of the state was called Sothivatinagar (Banda district, UP).

The kingdom of Vatsa was located south of the Ganga.

It was known for its cotton textiles.
Itscapitalwasat Kosambi Identifiedwiththevillageof Kosamontherightbank of the Yamuna.

It seems that finally the kingdom of Vatsa was annexed by Avanti which in turn was annexed by the emerging Magadhan Empire.

King Udayana of Vatsa went on to become the hero of the three romantic Sanskrit works- 'Svapna-Vasavdatta' of Bhasa, 'Ratnavali' and 'Priyadarshika' of Harsha.

The state of Kuru included modern Delhi, Meerut and Saharanpur district.

Its capital was at Indraprastha which has been tentatively identified with the site of Purana Qila in Delhi.

After the time of Buddha, Kurus became a Sangha (confederacy).

The territory of Panchala roughly corresponded to the modern Badaun, Farrukhabad

and Bareilly districts of U.P.

Their territory was divided in two parts- the northern part had its capital at Ahichchhatra identified with modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly district.

The Southern part had its capital at Kampilya identified with Kampila in the present day Farrukhabad district.

According to Arthashastra, the Panchalas later switched to Oligarchy.

The Matsya country corresponded to the modern territory of Jaipur, Alwar and a part

of Bharatpur.

Its capital was Viratanagara (modern Bairat).

The Surasenas had their capital at Mathura on the banks of Yamuna.

Buddhist traditions describe Avantiputra, a king of Surasena, as a disciple of Buddha.

The state of Ashmaka/Assaka lay on the river Godavari with its capital at

Potali/Potana (modern Bodhan, Nizamabad district, Telangana).

Jataka stories suggest that Asmaka was once under the sway of Kashi and at some point of time it scored a victory over Kalinga.

Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of M.P

Its northern capital was at Ujjaini (modern Ujjain) and the southern at Mahismati (modern Maheshwar).

Chandra Pradyota was the rule of Avanti during the time of Buddha.

Hemaintainedalargearmyandfollowedapolicyofmilitaryaggression
towards thekingdomsof Vatsa, Magadha, Kosalaand even thefar off Gandhara.

Avantiseemsto have annexed Vatsabut it wasswallowed by Magadhainturn.

Gandhara denotes the region comprising the modern districts of Peshawar and

Rawalpindi of Pakistan and Kashmir Valley.

Its capital Taxila was both a centre of trade and a seat of learning.
King Pushkarasarin established friendly relations with Bimbisara of Magadha but waged a war on the king Chandra Pradyota of Avanti.

The Behistun inscription (Iran) of the Achaemenid emperor Darius indicates that Gandhara was conquered by the Persians in the later part of the 6 th century BCE.

Kamboja roughly occupied the area around Rajouri (Jammu) including the Hazara

district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and perhaps some parts of the Nuristan province in Afghanistan.

Ancient texts and inscriptions usually associate the Kamboja kingdom with Gandhara.

The Magadha Empire It was the first experiment of empire building in India. It expanded from river Beas in the North-West to the border of Bengal in the East; and upto the River Godavari in the south.

Material factors as well as the ambitious Magadha kings made this possible.

Factors favouring military success of Magadha Mahajanapada

Both the capitals of Magadha were geographically protected.

For example, the first capital Girivraja or Rajgir was protected by hills. It had vast natural resources. So, it could sustain a war against its enemy for a longer period.

Likewise, its second capital, 'Pataliputra' was protected by a number of rivers viz, the Ganges, the Son and the Punpun.

The Magadha region was militarily well placed.

It possessed the reserves of iron that were used in weapons manufacturing.
Likewise, elephants were also available in nearby forests. They were used for military purposes.

The Magadha region was in better economic condition.

As the result of the use of iron in agriculture as well as the beginning of trans- plantation of paddy, vast agrarian surplus was produced.

It led to the development of crafts and trade.
So, the money economy and urbanisation flourished in this region.
As we know, the earliest punch-marked coins have been unearthed from northern Bihar and eastern U.P.

In this way, the favourable material conditions contributed to the success of Magadhan Empire.

Apart from that, Magadha remained outside of pale of Aryandom (Aryan region).

So, Magadha was being looked down upon in comparison to those regions where Brahmanic culture was entrenched.

That's why Magadha had more enthusiasm to expand, in order to assert its identity.
Being relatively free from orthodoxy allowed the enterprising leaders to emerge from different levels of social ranks.

Contribution of Magadha Rulers:

Themilitaryanddiplomaticsuccessofsomeoftheambitious Magadharulersalsocontributed to this process.

For example,thefounder ofthe Haryanka dynasty, Bimbisara,not onlycontributedto the expansion of Magadha, he also did a lot for its consolidation.

He defeated and annexed Anga.
Secondly, he developed matrimonial relations with a number of states like Kosala, Vajji Confederation, Madra and Videha in order to diplomatically consolidate his position.

His method was very much like that of some European rulers of the 16 th and 17 th century.

Thirdly, he laid the foundation of a strong administration.

He is credited for establishing a standing army as he is known as 'Shrenika Bimbisara'.

Furthermore, he carried out land measurement and he is supposed to
have convened an assembly of 80,000 gram bhojkas (heads of the villages).
The process of empire-building was continued under Bimbisara's son Ajatsatru.

He destroyed the power of the Vajji confederacy and annexed it.
Likewise, he annexed Kosala.

Shishunaga annexed Avanti, ending the rivalry between the two powers which had lasted 100 years.

Avanti was a great rival to Magadha and like Magadha and had overpowered a number of regional states including Vatsa.

This process was continued under Mahapadmananda, the founder of Nanda dynasty.

He annexed the region of Kalinga.
Thus, under Mahapadmananda, the Magadha Empire stretched from the river Beas in North-West up to the river Godavari in South, Persian and Greek invasions on India

The Persian Invasion

In North and East India, smaller principalities and republics gradually merged with the Magadhan Empire. But north-west India presented a different picture in the first half of the sixth century BC.

Several small principalities such as the Kamboja, Gandhara and Madra fought one another.

This area did not have any powerful kingdom like Magadha to weld the warring principalities into one organised kingdom.

The area was also wealthy, and could be easily entered through the passes in the Hindus Kush.

The Achaemenid rulers of Iran, who spread their empire at the same time as the Magadhan princes, took advantage of the political disunity on the North-West frontier.

The Iranian ruler Darius penetrated into North West India in c. 516 BCE.

He annexed Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the parts of the Punjab that lay to the west of the Indus River.

Greek historian Herodotus tells us that this area constituted the 20 th province or satrapy of the Persian Empire, the total number of satrapies being 28.

It was the most fertile and prosperous part of the empire.
It paid a tribute of 360 talents of gold, which accounted for almost one-third of the total revenue of Iran from its Asian provinces.

The Indian subjects were also enrolled in the Iranian army.

Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed Indians in his long war
against the Greeks.
It appears that North-West India continued to be a part of the Persian Empire up till Alexander's invasion of India.

The significance of Persian invasion on India

The region of North-West India was integrated with the vast region of West and Central

Asia. It certainly encouraged trade and urbanisation in this region.

The Persians introduced the Satrapy system (provincial government) in India that was

later adopted by the Indian rulers.

The Kharosthi and Aramaic scripts came to be used in India due to the Persian influence.
Although the matter is debatable, it is argued that the Ashokan pillars were influenced

by the pillar edicts of Persian emperor Darius I.

The Greek Invasion

In the 4 th century BCE, the Greeks and the Persian fought for the supremacy of the known world. Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia, the Greeks finally destroyed the Persian Empire.

Alexander conquered Asia Minor, Iraq and Iran.
From Iran, he marched to India, obviously attracted by its wealth.

Herodotus- who is called the father of history and other Greek writers, hand painted India as a fabulous land, which tempted Alexander to invade it.

Alexander also had a passion for geographical inquiry and natural history.
He was also inspired by the mythical exploits of past conquerors whom he wanted to emulate and surpass

The political condition of North West India suited his plans.

The area was parcelled out into many independent monarchies and
tribal republics.
Alexander found it easy to conquer these principalities one by one.
Among the local rulers, two were well known - Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus, whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab.

Together, they might have resisted the advance of Alexander.

But they could not put up a joint front; the Khyber Pass remained unguarded.

After the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to Kabul. From here, he marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 B.C.

It took him five months to reach the Indus. Ambhi readily submitted to the invader, augmented his army and replenished his treasury.

When Alexanderreached Jhelum,hemetthefirstandthestrongest resistance from Porus.

Although Alexander defeated Porus, he was impressed by his bravery
and courage.
So, he restored his kingdom and made him his ally.

Then, he advanced as far as the Beas River.

He wanted to move further eastward but his army refused.

The Greek soldiers had grown war-weary and diseased.
The hot climate of India and ten years of continuous campaigning had made them terribly homesick.

They had also experienced the bitter taste of Indian resistance which made them desist from further progress.

As the Greekhistorian Arian tells us: "Inthe art of war the Indianswere
far superior to the other nations inhabiting the area at that time."

The kingdom of Magadha, ruled by the Nandas, maintained an army far outnumbering that of Alexander.

So, despite the repeated appeals of Alexander to advance, the Greek soldiers did not oblige. He was forced to retreat.

On his return march, Alexander vanquished many small republics until he reached the end of the Indian frontier.

He remained in India for 19 months (326-325 B.C), which were full of fighting.

He had barely any time to organise his conquests, though he made some arrangements.

Most conquered states were restored to their rulers who submitted to his authority.

But his own territorial possessions were divided into three parts, which were placed under the three Greek governors.

He also founded a number of cities to maintain his control in this area.

The significance of Greek invasion on India

As a result of this invasion, important routes were opened between India and the

Mediterranean world.

2 The founder of the Mauryan dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, was impressed with the new military tactics of Alexander and he consolidated his position by appropriating these tactics.

Alexander's court historians left accounts of North-West India. They became the only

source of information for the North-West region of India during the 4 th century BCE

Greek scholars used the name 'Sandrocottus' for Chandra Gupta Maurya. When a British

scholar,William Jones,identified Sandrocottusas the Chandra Gupta Maurya,the chronology of ancient Indian history became clearer.

Hellenistic art developed in North West India as a result of the mixture of Greek elements

and Indian elements. Even Greek script and language came into use in the region.

The Administrative Structure in Buddha Age

The king wielded absolute power in monarchies.

He started to take pompous titles like 'Samrat'.
The general term for officers is Mahamatra.
Besides the Mahamatras, the king was advised and helped in administrative matters by the Mantrin i.e. ministers and councillors.

The machinery for tax collection was institutionalised.

We know about at least half a dozen officers which were associated with the taxation machinery

'Dronamapaka' (officer associated with measurement of land),
'Rajjugrahaka' (officer who collected revenue in grains),
'Shaulkika' (collector of tolls)
'Sanghitri' (treasurer).
Apart from these, Tundiya and Akasiya were also known for coercive tax collection.

Village was the lowest unit of administration during this period.

In the countryside, things were managed by a village headman who were variously known as 'Gramabhojakas' or 'Gramikas' and 'Graminis'.

Theynotonlyassessedandcollectedlandrevenuebutalsomaintainedlawandorder in their localities.

Now, the state could mobilise resources for maintaining a standing army and a

professional bureaucracy.

With growingcomplicationingovernance,itbecame essentialto maintain writtenrecords.

So royal documents were maintained under an official known as 'Akshpatladhikrita'.
It is inferred by historians and researchers that the accountants, clerks, auditors etc. in the revenue departments of Kings -and trading establishments- contributed to the early evolution of scripts across the world.

One should note that there must have been state wise variations in the efficiency and structure of the administration- general and revenue.

Economic Structure in the Buddha Age This period is marked by considerable economic changes.

The tribal semi-nomadic economy of Vedic period had transformed into an agrarian economy.

It fuelled the multiplication and specialisation of crafts, growth in trade (especially long distance trade) & money economy and the beginning of second urbanisation.

Agriculture- The factors which encouraged agriculture are following.

In comparison to wheat producing upper Gangetic basin, rice producing middle Gangetic

basin was more fertile.

It wasmore suitable for surplusagrarian production under conducivesocio- economic conditions.

Iron implements played a significant role in the intensification of cultivation in the middle

Gangetic basin.

This was due to the development of 'Socketing technique'.

By using this technique, the people could produce better agrarian implements like iron hoes, iron sickles, iron axes and above all iron ploughshares.

So, it became easier to clear dense forest of the middle Gangetic basin.

Cereals like rice, barley, wheat and millets were produced over a wider area.

Earlier, only the family members were associated with cultivation on family land holdings.

But, now slaves and wage labourers were employed by cultivators with sizable land holdings (Gahapatis).

These Gahapatis were a new addition to the rural milieu.

The technique of paddy transplantation came into existence.

In place of wheat, rice could feed more people because there could be a larger paddy harvest on a given tract of land than wheat.

So, better availability of food led to the population growth.

That's why we find a larger number of NBPW sites.

A transition was being made from a subsistence economy to a market economy.

The growth in agriculture encouraged craft activities.
The introduction of coinage facilitated this transition.
Thisresultedinthedevelopmentofa complexeconomicweb involvingbothrura land urban economic systems.

This web was spread over the vast subcontinent. It led to greater mobility, accelerated trade & commerce, and facilitated intercourse.

Guilds and Corporations

The artisans got organised into guilds and merchants into corporations in order to avoid the competition.

The guilds played a significant role in the economic and social life of their members.

The guilds fixed the price of the commodities.
Theyused to maintain the product quality and organise the whole production process.

Likewise, in social life, they used to regulate the life of its members

E.g. if the wife of an artisan wanted to join a Buddhist monastery, she
was not only supposed to take permission from her husband but also from her husband's guild.

Guildscouldmaketheircodesofconductandenforcethemthroughtheirown judicial-police system.

Kings were advised by the Dharma sutras to consult these guilds before taking decisions on relevant matters.

Trade Routes

Development of trade is linked with the growth of specialisation of crafts.
In those days, trade-both inland and foreign- was fairly brisk.
Merchants made fortunes by dealing in articles like silk, muslin, amour, perfumes, ivory, jewellery etc.

They travelled long distances up and down the great rivers of the country.
They even undertook coastal voyages to Burma and Sri Lanka from Tamluk in the east and from Broach in the west.

The traders followed certain well established inland routes.

One of them ran from Shravasti to Pratishthana;
another linked Shravasti with Rajgir;
athirdskirtedalongthefoothills ofthe Himalayasfrom Taxilato Shravasti;and
a fourth connected Kashi with the ports of western coast.

Long distance trade was associated with towns rather than rural areas because the former were centres of craft production and distribution; besides they were being protected appropriately.

Money Economy

This period is marked by the rise of the money economy.
Regular coins known as 'Punch marked coins' (Kahapana/Karshapana) came into use for the first time during this period.

These coins were made of silver and copper.
They were marked by different kinds of figures on them.
These coins were issued by merchants or guilds.

They have been unearthed from different parts of the Indian subcontinent in large numbers.

Apartfromarchaeologicalevidence,evenliteraryevidencegivesusinformation about the use of coins.

According to a contemporary text, physician 'Jivaka' got a large number of coins as a reward from a Gahapati as he cured his son.

Onthebasisofrecentresearch,ithasbeenemphasisedthateven'cowries'(seashells) were used as coins.

Urbanisation

This period is marked by the second urbanisation.
According to the Buddhist text, there were nearly 60 towns in North India.

20 towns out of these 60 were as large as Shravasti.
6 towns were enjoying the status of a metropolis (Mahanagar).

In the north-west, Alexander's historians had also mentioned towns.

According to a Greek scholar, Arrian, Alexander conquered 9 states and 5000 towns.

Although it was an exaggeration, we can at least deduce from this statement that urbanisation had already started in the region.

Even archaeological evidence shows that Taxila had emerged as a town up to this point. Urban Occupations

The urban occupations can be broadly categorised into two groups:

I.e. those connected with production activities and those which were not connected with production as such.

The material remains discovered from the various archaeological sites attest to the existence of various crafts industries such as:

Clay working like pottery, terracotta figurines, brick making etc.
Carpentry and wood-working
Metal-working
Stone-working
Glass industry
Bone and ivory-working
Silk and cotton textile
Other miscellaneous industries like garland-makers, bow & arrow makers, combs, baskets, perfumes, liquor, oil, musical instruments etc.

Non-production occupations included

Soldiers/policemen, administrators, physicians, scribes, actors, dancers, musicians, acrobats, courtesans etc.

The merchants, who were an intermediary group, played a vital role in the system of distribution.

Evaluation of the role of Iron in second urbanisation

View I: Iron played a crucial role

D.D. Koshambi was the first to link the role of iron implements to the 2 nd urbanisation.

This theory was developed further by R.S Sharma, D.N Jha and other Marxist historians.

Accordingtothisview, clearingofforests and expansionofcultivation became easier with the help of iron tools.

Thus,from the 6 th century BCE onwards,agriculture waspractised extensively in the middle-Gangetic basin.

Some agrarian implements like sickles, hoes, axes etc. were associated with this period.

From the Jakhera archeological site, we've unearthed even an iron
ploughshare.

Thus, with the help of iron implements, there was further extension of cultivation in the arable lands in the middle Gangetic basin.

Furthermore, the rice producing middle Gangetic basin was more productive that wheat producing upper-Gangetic basin.

Apart from that, the transplantation of paddy started during this period.
Also, slaves and workers got associated with cultivation for the first time because paddy transplantation is a productive but labour intensive method.

It resulted in surplus agrarian production. Then, this surplus production encouraged population growth.

For example, in the Gangetic basin,the total number of OCP sites was 110 and the total number of PGW sites increased to 750 but the number of NBPW sites reached 1500.

On the other hand, surplus production in the field of agriculture encouraged the development of crafts.

In Buddhist texts, different types of crafts have been mentioned.
Now, a group of craftsmen associated with a particular craft could settle in a particular region and gradually these regions developed into urban centres.

These decisions were based on the availability of raw materials and
markets for their goods.

They could completely dissociate from farming as their craftsmanship could earn them a decent living.

For example, at Vaishali, 500 potters were settled.
During this period, trade and commerce also was encouraged.

Surplus from agriculture and crafts specialisation & proliferation gave birth to long and short distance trade in these goods.

This trade could be further facilitated with the rise of the money economy.

For example, punch marked coins, which were the earliest regular coins, came into existence for the first time during this period.

In this way, the emergence of second urbanisation was linked with the effective use of iron implements in the field of agriculture.

View II: Role of iron was limited

Revisionist historiography has stressed that instead of iron tools,other factors played more significant roles.

This view was promoted by D.K. Chakravarty, Bridget and Raymond Allchin, George Erdosy etc.

D.K Chakravarty emphasised that the political, economic and religious factors made a more important contribution to the second urbanisation than the iron tools.

He argues that if we observe the earliest urban sites, we come to the conclusion that most of these towns were mainly political-administrative centres, eg. Indraprastha, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kosambi, Champa, Ahichchhatra etc.

So,heretheriseofurbancentresshouldbelinkedtotheadministrative
activities.

Likewise, there were certain towns which were the product of growing trading activities.

As we know, during early centuries of the Common Era (CE), certain
towns in northern and southern India appeared as a result of Roman trade.

Apart from that, even religious factors might have contributed to this process.

For example, some religious structures like Chaityas and Stupas are
visible either along the ancient trade routes or the urban centres.
So, it appears that heterodox sects like Buddhism and Jainism
contributed to the development of trade and towns.
On the other hand, B. and R. Allchin tried to prove that, in place of iron implements, it was the migration of population as well as technology from the North-West to the

Ganga valley which resulted in second urbanisation.

They argue that the multi-fold increase in the number of settlements towards East should not be linked to the agrarian surplus, rather it should be linked to the migration of population from West to East due to climatic change.

Furthermore, even technological know-how was coming from North-West along with people.

Likewise, in the Gangetic basin, some new types of crops grew in importance. These developments resulted in the growth in production.

There is another perspective that undermines the role of iron in the process of urbanisation. According to this view, the role of iron in the 2 nd urbanisation should not be overestimated due to following reasons:

Firstly, the number of iron implements associated with this period is quite small.

Thenumberofagrarianirontoolsbecamesignificantonlyinthemiddle
of NBPW phase, when urbanisation was well underway.
Makkhan Lal argues that there was no significant increase in the use
of iron from PGW to NBPW phase.
In fact, latest archaeology shows that the iron was being used in at least some parts of the middle Ganga Valley from as early as the beginning of the 2 nd millennium BCE.

Furthermore, A. Ghosh and Niharranjan Ray argue on the basis of the
contemporary texts, that the fire was being used for clearing of forest even during this period.

Secondly, while expansion of agriculture must have involved some degree of deforestation, but, the large-scale clearing of the Ganga Valley and the subcontinent in general, is a relatively recent phenomenon of the colonial period.

This was on account of the railway expansion, population boom and
commercialization of agriculture.

On these grounds, we can say that for the growth in production, the entire credit should not be given to iron implements only.

Also,the interplay between technologyand historyis complex.Thisisalso suggested by archaeology.

E.g. the advent of the Iron Age was not swiftly followed by urbanisation and radical socio-economic changes in the Deccan and the South.

Rajan Gurukka points out that, despite having the knowledge of iron technology, the larger socio-political context of war and plunder obstructed the process of agrarian growth in these areas.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we can say that the role of iron as an instrument of change cannot be denied.

Iron contributed not only in production but also in control of this surplus production (coercive element of the state).

But, other factors should be taken into consideration.

In other words, we can say that the role of iron should be linked to other relevant factors, only then the evolution of 2 nd urbanisation can properly be evaluated.

Social structure in Buddha Age

The Varna division had already started to crystallise during the Later Vedic period and the four-fold Varna system replaced the old tribal division.

Now, birth became the basis of social division.
On the basis of Dharma Shastras, Varna division was made a rigid structure.
The social mobility from one Varna to another Varna was largely disrupted.

Buddhist and Jaina texts also approve of these divisions.

But, they treat these divisions as a product of the human imagination to establish a social order.

Unlike Brahamanical texts, they don't belive that this four-fold Varna
division is part of the divinely ordained natural order.

Naturally, Buddhist and Jain traditions were more tolerant of the Varna infractions.

Also, two types of marriages emerged during this period i.e. 'Anuloma' and 'Pratiloma'.

In 'Anuloma' marriages, the Varna status of a wife was inferior to that of her husband.

In the Dharma Sutra tradition, the Anuloma marriage was accepted.

In the 'Pratiloma' marriages, the Varna status of husband was inferior.

The Pratilomamarriagewasstrictlyprohibitedandtheprogenyof such
a marriage was thrown out of the Varna hierarchy.
As a result of such marriages, the number of 'Varna Samkaras' (Varna Intermixing) increased.

Thefactthat these marriages are even discussed in the Sutras meansthat they took place.

Perhaps, these prescriptions of the Dharma Sutras were frequently
contravened.

That is why the Buddhist texts mention about 12 Varna Samkaras.

Varna was now competing with another marker of social identity, Jati (caste).

The Dharma sutras explain the origin of these Jatis with the fictitious theory of the mixture of Varnas (Varna Samkaras).

Jatis may have had a complex origin.

So, the beginning of the caste system can be traced to the 6 th century BCE.

Untouchability may have started during this period itself.

The Chandalas are unanimously put into the untouchable category by all the major Dharma sutras.

Kula and Gotra were the other important markers of social identity.
The texts of this period frequently refer to the slaves- male and female.
New social groups evolved during this period with the new economic activities e.g. Gahapatis (Grihpatis), Setthi (shresthi) etc.

They mostly belonged to the 'Vaishya' Varna. But, they enjoyed higher economic status which must have increased their social aspirations.

It was an important factor behind their support for Buddhism and Jainism.

'Dharma Sutras' relegated women to a lower status. Their social condition declined during this period.

They were completely subordinated to the male members of the family.
Apart from that, dowry system expanded during this period e.g. Bimbisara got the region of Kashi as dowry. Religion in the Buddha Age

The Intellectual Revolution in 6 th century BCE

The period of 6 th century BCE onwards is known as the Age of Enquiry. A number of thinkers appearedduringthis period.Theyreflected over the questionslike meaningof life anddeath, the nature of truth, universal truth, natural order etc.

The multiplicity of the heterodox sects was a feature of this age.

According to the Buddhist texts,there were 63 sects while Jaina texts mention about 363 sects.

During this period, great thinkers like Buddha and Mahavira were born.
They emphasised over the concepts like Karma, transmigration of soul and salvation.

Butotherthanthesethinkers,therewerematerialisticthinkersaswellwhichincluded Ajit Keskamblin, Pakkuda Katyayana, Purana Kashyapa, Makkhali Gosala and Sanjay Velittaputra.

They rejected the concepts of Karma and Rebirth and believed in the theory of predetermination.

But, other than Buddhism and Jainism, no other heterodox sect left
behind a body of literature.
Whatever we know about them is sourced from the writings of their competitors.

In one sense, it was an age of enquiry even in the global context.

This period was marked by the arrival of Zarthrusta in Persia, Pythagoras in Greece and Confucius as well as Laozi in China.

So, it does not appear to be an exaggeration to say that the period of 6 th century B.C. was marked by an intellectual fermentation.

Factors responsible for the Intellectual Revolution

When we observe closely, we find that the origin of heterodox sects was deeply associated with the contemporary economic and social changes.

Infact,Vedicreligionwasopposingthecontemporaryeconomicandsocialdemands.

For example, in the 6 th century BCE, there was an expansion in cultivation in the middle Gangetic basin.

The iron implements played an important role in clearing of forest and
ensuring agrarian expansion.
The slaves and workers were involved in cultivation for the first time
during this period.

As a result of development in agriculture, a prosperous agrarian class came into existence.

In Buddhist text, they came to be known as 'Gahapatis' (the head of
families).
During Vedic Age, they were mainly associated with domestication of
animals. But, during this period, they became heads of prosperous families.
The Buddhist textsmention prosperous Grihpatis like Mendaka and Anathapindika.

Some Grihpatis possessed big agrarian farms.
We come to know that 500 oxen were used for cultivation in some of the big farms.

So, the demand of the new agrarian economy was the protection of animal wealth.

But at the same time, a large number of animals were being
slaughtered in sacrifices.
That's why the ritualistic Vedic religion ran counter to the economic demands of the time.

On the other hand, the heterodox sects like Buddhism and Jainismwereemphasisingovertheprotectionofanimalwealth.

So, it was very natural that the Grihpatis, associated with cultivation,had supported heterodox sects.

Likewise, this period was marked by growing trade & commerce and the money economy.

In fact, Pali texts give us information about the important trade routes in Northern India.

Likewise, the terms like 'Shresthi, Gana, Sangha' etc. give a strong hint towards the presence of a mercantile and artisan class.

Back then, as it is even today, money-lending and profit-making were the backbones of trade and commerce.

But the Vedic religion looked down upon money lending and profit
making. These were declared unethical in the Sutra literature.

Ontheotherhand,Buddhismand Jainismjustifiedmoney-lendingandprofit- making.

That's why, the mercantile class supported heterodox sects like Buddhism & Jainism.

Infact,thisphenomenon goesagainst thethesisof Max Weberthatthe Indian religious sects worked as a barrier against economic development because they lacked rationalism which one could see in the Protestantism of Europe.

Likewise, the origin of heterodox sects had a broad social base as well.

In fact,the unequal distribution of the economic surplus generated in the 6 th century BCE created social tensions based on the growing inequality and conflict.

As a result of this surplus, a rivalry started between the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas.

As we know, tribal society was converted into a Varna divided society
up to this period and a higher position in the Varna hierarchy meant a bigger claim over the surplus production.
That's why, the Kshatriyas started a competition with the Brahmins in
order to get a higher social status.
So, it is not simply coincidence that the earlier Upanishads were
composed in the land of Videha.

Some Kshatriya kings started to challenge the Brahmanic supremacy in the field of education.

They got the status of philosopher kings. Likewise, even religious
leaders like Buddha and Mahavira belong to the Kshatriya clans.
This Brahman-Kshatriya rivalry is reflected in the Pali texts, which
presented a new Varna hierarchy viz Khatiya > Babhan > Vessa > Suda.

On the other hand, heterodox sects got the support of Vaishyas also.

Infact, Vaishyas were the only producer and tax-payer class but they
were assigned third position in the Varna hierarchy.
That's why, even Vaishyas were dissatisfied with the Varna system.
They were ready to give support to those sects which could give a
challenge to the Varna system.
Apart from that, even the concept of Karma and rebirth had a relationship with the contemporary economic and social changes.

In fact, the concept of karma and rebirth was conceptualised to give stability to society which was economically and socially sharply divided.

As Buddhism and Jainism accepted this concept, they became relevant in society.

Although, we find the literary reference to as many as 63 religious sects during this period, Buddhism and Jainism gained more prominence.

Theirimportancelayinthefactthattheymadespiritedattacksontheexisting Varna-system and the ritualistic domination of the Brahmins.

They provided a more balanced and readily adaptable solution, especially at a time when the society was undergoing significant economic, social and political changes following the use of iron in the second phase.

Impact of the new religious movements

The rise and development of the new religious ideas brought some significant changes in contemporary social life. Some of the important changes are following:

The idea of social equality was popularised in this period.

The Buddhists and Jains did not give much importance to the caste system.
They accepted members of different castes in their religious order (Sangha).
This was a threat to the age-old domination of the Brahmans in the society.
Acceptanceofwomenin the Buddhistorderalsohadanimpactonthesociety because this gave women an alternative way of living.

Brahmanical texts had assigned an inferior position to traders.

Sea voyages were also condemned.
But as the Buddhists and Jains did not give much importance to the caste and did not look down upon the sea voyages, the trading community was encouraged by these new religious ideas.

Moreover, the emphasis on Karma for future life by these new religious orders also indirectly favoured the activities of the trading community.

These new sects gave importance to local dialects like Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi.

The features of religion during Buddha age

This period is marked by an intellectual revolution.

The multiplicity of sects was one of the features of this time.
According to the Buddhist texts, there were nearly 63 sects and accordingto the Jaina texts, there were nearly 363 sects.

Above all, there was an ideological conflict among different scholars and thinkers.
Even at the global level, this period was marked by intellectual fermentation e.g. Pythagoras was born in Greece, Confucius and Laozi in China and Zarthrusta in Persia.

Asceticism was a very common feature among most of the sects.

This was because most of the sects believed in the concept of karma, rebirth and salvation.

These sects rejected ritualism.

They questioned that, "if Brahma and soul are same then why - and for whom the rituals should be done?"

Important sects or philosophical schools

Upanishads

It rejected the Vedic ritualism.

Instead, it gave emphasis over the relation between 'brahma' and soul.

According to the Upanishads, 'brahma and soul' are one and the same.
The superficial differences betweenthemaredue tothe ignorance abouttheir relationship.

According to the Upanishads, the path for salvation is 'Knowledge'.

Although Upanishads revolted against the Vedic ritualism, they were different from Buddhism and Jainism.

The objective of Buddhism and Jainism was to deny the existence (concept) of the Vedic religion completely, the objective of Upanishads was to make corrections in the existing Vedic religion in order to strengthen its position vis-

à-vis other sects.

Jainism

Jainism tried to address the contemporary socio-economic challenges.

According to Jainism, the world is eternal i.e. it neither has a beginning nor an end. Further, there are two phases in the cyclic functioning of the world.

First phase is the stage of upsurge. In Jaina texts, it is called 'Utsarpini'.

During this stage, 36 'Shalaka Purush' (great men) are born.
Among them, there are 24 Tirthankaras and 12 Chakravarty rulers.

The second phase is that of decline 'Avasarpini'.

During this stage, even the size of man gets reduced so much that he
has to pluck brinjal with the help of a bamboo stick.
Also, according to Jaina philosophy, this universe functions through interaction between 'Jiva' (soul) and 'Ajiva' (matter).

Ajiva includes dharma, adharma, Akash (space), kaal (time) and pudgal (karma).

The objective of Jainism is to make Jiva (soul) free from Pudgal (karma).

Only then can a person attain 'Kaivalya' (the highest knowledge).
Two methods are recommended in Jainism to destroy pudgal.

First one is 'samvara'.
Through this method, the entry of 'pudgal' into 'Jiva' has to be prevented.

The second method is 'nirjara'.
Itinvolvesannihilationoftheaccumulatedkarmathroughgreat penances.

Jainism has recommended 5 'mahavrata' and 12 'anuvrata' for monks and lay followers respectively.

A unique ideological achievement of Jainism is its philosophy of 'Syadvada' or 'Anekantavada'.

It is also known as 'Sapta-bhangi Nyaya'.
According to this philosophy, truth can be one and more than one, static and mobile, at the same time.

So, there can be more than one aspect of an event and all of them can
be true at the same time.
As per the theory of Syadvada, truth can have 7 attributes. Significance and the present relevance of Jainism

It gave a challenge to the Brahmanic supremacy and 'varna- ashrama' system.
It responded to the contemporary economic realities by giving support to the rising

mercantile class.

Jaina saints developed their own educational institutions.

By establishing libraries, they tried to spread education.

They made contributions in development of architecture e.g. Dilwara temple.

Even, its contribution in painting is important e.g. earliest miniature paintings of ancient India.

Jain literature in the regional scripts and dialects promoted their standardisation in the early medieval period.

They also tried to create a mental climate for tolerance by promoting philosophy like

'Syadvada'.

Jainism infused a sense of non-violence in the cultural heritage of India.

For the present relevance of Jainism, we can say that Jainism promoted non-violence.

But while doing so, it went to an impractical extent e g. protection of insects.

So, in contemporary context, that is not relevant.

But the philosophy of 'Syadvada' propounded by Jainism is still relevant.

'Syadvada' says that there are seven attributes of the truth.
In true sense, it is Syadvada' which promotes non-violence.
It tries to establish that it is wrong to claim that the truth is only one.
Normally, every violent act involves a claim by a group that its own version of truth is the only right one.

But,iftherearemorethanoneattributeofatruth,thereisnobasisofviolence.
A sense of tolerance and co-existence is inherent in 'Syadvada.'
And, it is this philosophy of Syadvada which became the inspiration for Gandhian non-violence.

Buddhism

It conceives the world in the following manner.

First, the world is full of sorrows.

It is from here, its philosophy of four noble truth emerges

i.e. there is sorrow;
There is a cause of sorrow;
There is a solution to sorrow and;
There is a method to get rid of sorrow.
That method was called the Eightfold path (middle path).
Second, Buddhism believes that the world is transitory i.e it is changing every moment. Also, it declares that the world is 'soulless'.

Thus, on the one hand it accepts the concept of 'Karma and rebirth', on the other hand, it denies the concept of soul.

So, the question arises, if there were no soul then what transmigrates to the next life.

Buddhism answers this through the philosophy of Pratityasamutpada (the theory of dependent origination).

Accordingto thisphilosophy,ifthe causeof sorrow isdesirethen thecauseof birth is the cycle of Karma.

In this way, Buddhism tried to establish some causative relationship between birth and Karma.

We can understand this concept with the example of a candle.
If a candle, before being extinguished, lights another candle, then the 1 st candle becomes the cause of the 2 nd candle.

On the basis of such a causative relationship, rebirth is explained.
Thus, it is the karma which travels from one birth to another birth, and
not the soul.
Note: - Pratyutsamutpada ('Pratyut'- because of this (cause) and 'Sammuppad' - this happens (effects). It is also called the law of causative origination i.e. everything has a cause.

Eightfold path (middle path)

Right view
Right resolve
Right speech
Right concentration
Right livelihood
Right effort
Right recollection
Right meditation

Three Jewels (Tri-ratna)

Buddha
Dharma

Sangha

Why did Buddhism become popular?

Buddhism kept away from controversial concepts like soul and god. So, it became

comprehensible to the common people.

Unlike Jainism, Buddhism adopted a practical approach to life as it emphasised over the

'middle path'.

Buddhism catered to the interest of both, the rich and the poor. It favoured the rich by

emphasising on the principle of 'non-stealing'. But, at the same time, it favoured the poor by promoting the principle of 'non-accumulation' of wealth.

Buddhism adopted the language of the common people i.e. Pali. So, it could reach the

masses easily.

Buddhism enjoyed royal patronage. The rulers of Magadha, Bimbisara and Ajatsatru, the

ruler of Kosala, Prasenjit etc. gave patronage to Buddhism. Later Ashoka and Kanishka converted it into a world religion.

Limitations of Buddhism

Despite opposingthe castesystem, Buddhismcouldnotdevelop anyalternativemodel of

the social order.

It maintained republican norms and equality in the monastic life inside the Buddhist Sangha. But in the world outside the Buddhist Sangha, it compromised with the caste system in practice.

Pali texts tried to change the caste hierarchy in the following manner.

Top: Khatiya (Kshatriya)
Babhan (Brahmin)
Vessa (Vaishya)
Bottom: Suda (Shudra)

Buddhism couldn't break Brahmanic dominance and Buddha could not be free from the

elite consciousness completely. Even inside the Buddhist monastery, there was a larger presence of the upper Varnas.

Buddhism was not free from the impact of Brahmanical patriarchy.

E.g.earlier Buddha wasunwillingto give entrytothe women inthe Buddhist monastic order.

Even when he became ready, he could not be free from his scepticism about this move.

A separate monastic order within the Sangha was constituted for the women monks.
Women monks were placed under the strict supervision of male monks.

Significance of Buddhism and its relevance today

Buddhism was not simply a religious movement but also a social revolution.

It promoted a social ethics which was noticed by a conscious king, Ashoka.
Infact,Ashokadevelopedaverypracticalformof Buddhismwhichrepresenteda social creed minus Nirvana.

Buddhism promoted economic activities as well by discouraging animal slaughter and

encouraging a mercantile value system.

Buddhism promoted a sense of compassion and brotherhood which is a great treasure for

human civilization. It promoted the concept of 'Live and let Live'.

Initially, Buddhism encouraged Pali language and literature. Later, it encouraged Sanskrit

language and literature as well.

5.Buddhismmadecontributionsto artandarchitectureas well.Stupas,Chaityas,Viharasand during Mahayana phase, even temples developed as Buddhist architectures.

The relevance of Buddhism can't be denied even during present era:

The Eightfold path or 'Middle path' propounded by Buddha can save the world from

environmental problems and natural calamities.

The Middle path can provide a better solution to the present society which is facing the

problem of extremism in every sphere.

The Buddhist concept of nonviolence can give some respite to this terrorism haunted

world.

A foreign policy based on the Buddhist ideals, originally evolved under Ashoka, can be a

very effective tool in the present times.

It issurprising that human civilisationhadreached such astageofphilosophical refinement

during the time of Buddha which we cannot be surpassed even today. Questions raised by Buddha, about human existence (Dukh, Mrityu, Old age, Diseases) are still unanswered.

We can underline the relevance of Buddhism in the modern corporate world which has turned to Buddhism for maintaining emotional intelligence (corporate Buddha).

Q. Compare and contrast the Buddhist and Upanishadic thought. Examine their similarities and differences. [20 Marks]

Answer

Buddhist thought and Upanishadic thought emerged during the same period of cultural and intellectual activity in ancient India, sharing certain similarities while also differing in fundamental aspects.

Similarities

Both Buddhist and Upanishadic thought originated in ancient India, influenced by the socio-economic and religious conditions of the time.

Some early Upanishads, such as the Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, and Aitareya, may have influenced the development of Buddhism.

Both traditions recognize the importance of ethical conduct, such as compassion, charity, and moral improvement.

The concepts of rebirth and karma are accepted by both Buddhism and Upanishadic thought.

Both traditions value the renunciant lifestyle and seek liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

Vegetarianism or nonviolence towards animals is promoted in both Buddhist and Upanishadic ideas.

Both reject the reliance on Vedic rituals as a means of salvation.
Personal experience and direct realisation are emphasised in both traditions.

Differences

Buddhism rejects the authority of the Vedas and orthodox tendencies found in the Upanishads.

The concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (soul, self) are central in Upanishadic thought but denied by Buddhism.

The Buddhaquestionedtheexistenceofa Creator Deity(Brahman)and Eternal Self (Atman), differing from Upanishadic beliefs.

The Upanishads view Brahman as the ultimate reality, whereas Buddhism considers Brahmas as a class of superhuman beings but does not perceive Brahman as the ultimate reality.

The Buddha's teachings focus on the middle way and the elimination of attachment as a cause of suffering, while the Upanishads emphasise following dharma and attaining good karma.

Buddhism promoted renunciation without considering caste, whereas the Upanishads maintained the varna system and prescribed specific stages of life for renunciation.

Buddhism spread through conversion and proselytism, while the Upanishads are silent on the issue of religious conversion.

The study of salvation in Upanishadic thought is centred on the static Self, while the Buddha's soteriology emphasises personal effort and dynamic agency.

Thus, while they share some ethical values and notions such as rebirth and karma, their fundamental teachings and perspectives are distinct. As such, Buddhism, while definitely inspired by Upanishadic philosophy, represents an entirely independent body of thought.

Q. Shed light on the Buddhist attitude towards the varna system. [15 Marks]

Answer

Buddhism's stance on the caste system differed from the Brahmanical concept of the varna system. While Buddhism did not aim to reform or improve social conditions directly, it criticised and challenged the varna system.

Denial of Birth as the Basis of Caste

Buddha rejected the notion that one's caste is determined by birth.
Instead, he emphasized that a person's behaviour and deeds define their identity.
He compared it to fire that can arise from any wood, indicating that a saint could be born in a family of low status.

Buddha defined a Brahmana based on one's character and not their lineage, highlighting the potential for spiritual attainment in all individuals.

Rejection of Caste as a Measure of Social Status

The Buddha challenged the superiority claims of Brahmanas, asserting that superiority lies in one's actions, not caste.

He criticised the idea that a person's caste automatically confers social status, stating that a noble birth does not make a person inherently good.

The Buddha maintained that all four castes are equal.

Caste Distinctions and Moral Conduct

The Buddha acknowledged the existence of the caste system but emphasised that moral conduct, not caste, determines a person's goodness or badness.

He recognized that a person's caste may influence their occupation but underscored the importance of actions that promote moral development.

The Buddha encouraged individuals to engage in services that make them better, rather than those that make them bad.

Buddhist Monks and Caste

Buddhist monks, as a distinct class, were not bound by caste restrictions.

The Buddha declared the monkhood as casteless, emphasising that caste becomes irrelevant when a person attains sainthood.

However, slaves and debtors were not admitted to the monastic order unless they were freed or had discharged their debts.

Karma and Caste

The Buddhaestablishedalinkbetweencasteandkarma,assertingthatone'spresent caste is a result of past karmas.

He taught that current actions determine one's caste status in future births.
While he acknowledged the role of caste in present life, he emphasised that caste does not determine a person's moral quality, physical features, or wealth.

The doctrine of karma provided a rational foundation for understanding the caste system. Limited Emphasis on Sudras and Outcastes

The Buddha'steachingsprimarilyaddressthegoalsoftheprivilegedclasses,withless emphasis on Sudras and outcastes.

Sudras and outcastes' participation in religious life is given limited attention, indicating a narrower focus on their spiritual engagement. Silence on Discriminatory Laws

The Buddhist texts show no evidence of the Buddha denouncing or addressing the discriminatory laws associated with the caste system.

Buddhism seems to lack awareness of the existence of such discriminatory practices.

Thus, the Buddha's teachings recognized caste distinctions but challenged the notion that castedeterminesaperson'smoralworth.Heemphasisedtheimportanceofindividualactions and deeds, rather than birth, in determining one's spiritual progress. While the Buddha did not explicitly denounce the caste system or social practices like untouchability, he highlighted the impartiality of karmic law, which operates independently of man-made societal norms. The formation of a casteless monastic community further demonstrated the Buddha's belief in transcending caste distinctions.