Pallavas Of Tondaimandalam And Chalukyas Of Badami (Western

Chalukyas)

The period between 500 CE and 750 CE was an important phase in the history of Southern India. It does not appear to be an exaggeration to say that between 500 CE and 750 CE, the strength and vigour of Indian history lay south of the Vindhyas.

• Here, the term 'South of the Vindhyas' does not simply mean the Maharashtra region but also the Tamil region.
• During this period, after the decline of Gupta Empire, centrifugal forces were active in northern India.
• Although rulers like Harsha tried to check the process of disintegration, but after his death, the decentralisation process continued. It was during this period that two big empires like Chalukyas of Badami and Pallavas came into existence.
• They brought large regions in southern India under their control.
• Apartfrom them, Pandyas of Madurai, Western Gangas of Mysore, Chalukyas of Lata (modern South Gujarat) and Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were other important kingdoms.
• The last two were possibly offshoots of the Chalukyas. It was not simply a period of political achievements but also that of cultural achievements in South India.
• The Chalukyastateof Badami,whichwaslocatedin the Deccanregion,worked as a conduit for the exchange of ideas and cultural values between Northern and Southern India.
• Likewise, during this period, a new Tamil identity developed as a result of the interaction between Aryan and indigenous elements.
• It was the product of the process of assimilation and reaction simultaneously.

Causes behind the rise of great political powers in South India

1. Expansion of agrarian economy in the fertile Raichur Doab, the Krishna-Godavari

Delta and the Cauvery Delta.

1. Leading dynasties of the period established their control over tribal areas with the

help of military dominance.

1. The Brahmin,Buddhist and Jain land grantees were settled in the frontierareasof the

kingdoms so as to increase the state's political influence and legitimacy.

1. During this period, elements of the north Indian ideal of kingship were gradually

percolating and reshaping the political model of south India.

The Pallava- Western Chalukya conflict

The period from 500 CE to 750 CE was marked by regular military conflicts between Pallava and Chalukya powers.

This conflict was less political and more geographical.

• For example, this conflict was mainly for acquiring the possession over the fertile region of Krishna-Tungabhadra doab (Raichur Doab) and Krishna - Godavari Delta.
• After the decline of the Pallava and Chalukya power, the conflict continued between successor states.

The conflict started with the invasion of Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II in the Pallava region.

• He defeated Pallava King Mahendravarman I and captured the region of Vengi. The successor of Mahendravarman I, Narshimhavarman, decided to retaliate.
• In association with a Sri Lankan King, he invaded the Chalukya region and emerged victorious.
• In this conflict, Pulakeshin II was killed.
• This event was followed by internal chaos and the Chalukya throne remained vacant for the next 13 years.

Peace andorder once again returnedto Chalukyan statewiththe coronation of Vikramaditya I in c. 655 CE.

• Vikramaditya I once again started the conflict with Pallava king Mahendravarmana II and Paramesvara Varmana.

This conflict was continued by the later Chalukya and Pallava kings.

• It could not produce anydefinite result and possibly caused the declineof both these dynasties.
• In the mid-8 th century CE, the Chalukyas were replaced by Rashtrakutasin the Maharashtra region.
• Likewise, in the second half of 9 th century CE, the Pallavas were replaced by the Cholas in the Tamil Nadu region. Administration Theadministrativemodelof South Indiandynastieswasinfluencedby the North Indianideals but they were modified to suit the prevailing local conditions:
1. On the model of North Indian kings, the Pallava and the Chalukya rulers took the titles like

'Maharaja' and 'Parmeshwara'.

• But, some locally popular titles also emerged like 'Dharmamaharaja', 'Agnishtoma', 'Vajapeya' and 'Ashwamedhi'.
1. From Pallava and Chalukyan copper plate inscriptions, we come to know about a number

of officers.

• For example, in the Pallava administration, the crown prince and chief queen occupied important places.
• Apart from that, we come to know about officers like Rastrika, Desadhika, Ayuktaka, Rajpurusha etc.
• Based on the Gupta administrative model, there was an official called 'Sandhivigrahaka' under the Chalukyas, who was concerned with foreign affairs.
1. Under the Pallavas, the empire was hierarchically divided into provinces, known as

'Mandalas'.

• Likewise, Mandalas were divided into 'Kottams' (district).
• Under the Kottams, there were 'Nadus'.
• The 'Nadu' was possibly an autonomous unit of administration and consisted of a number of villages.
• We don't have sufficient information about the Chalukyan administration.
• But, it appears that the state was divided into provinces and provinces into districts.

4.Boththe Pallavasandthe Chalukyasusedtheinstrumentof 'landgrants'inordertoexp and their authority into the tribal areas.

• Under Pallavas,inordertohavebettercontrolovertribalregions,someofficers called 'Gaulmika' were appointed.
• He was possibly a military governor.
1. Under the Chalukyas, an official called 'Gavunda' was concerned with the village

administration.

• 'Mahajan' was another official associated with the rural administration.
1. One important feature of the Pallava administration was the tradition of local self-

government in the Tamil region.

• Here, we come to know about the institutions like 'Ur' or 'Sabha' at the village level and the institutions like 'Nattar' at the level of Nadu.
• Local elements were playing an important role in the local administration and the government officers were associated simply with advisory works.

Economy If we observe the Pallava economy, we find that there was a rapid extension of agriculture after the 6 th century CE.

• Thisprocessformedthebasisof 2nd urbanisation in South Indiafromthe 9 th century CE.
• Onepointtobenotedhereisthatwhile the basisoffirsturbanisation (during Sangam period)in South Indiawastradeandcommerce,thebasisforsecondurbanisation was agriculture.
• The evolution of an agrarian economy into an urban economy was a gradual process. At this time, three important institutions were at play in South India: Brahmadeya, Nadu and Nagaram.
• The Brahmadeyas were such villagesthat were allotted to the Brahmanasin the form of land grants.
• Therefore, the Brahmanas were socially dominant here.
• There was a separate category of villages dominated by the rich peasants, called 'Vellalars'.
• The 'Nadu' was an administrative unit immediately above the village level.
• It consisted of a number of villages.
• Duetotheexpansionoftheagrarianeconomy,alargersurpluswasgenerated at the level of Nadus.
• Therefore, a class of prosperous peasants got entrenched at this level.
• Prosperity in these areas increased the demand for other goods.
• The rural population felt the need for such goods that could only be traded.
• Therefore,inthevicinityofprosperous Nadus,corporateorganisationsoftraders and merchants called 'Nagaram' materialised.
• In this way, the Nagarams also expanded.
• Nagarams used to transport goods between different areas for trading purposes.
• Some of these Nagarams got linked into a larger trade network which in turn encouraged urbanisation.
• Inthisway,Nagaramand Nadustimulatedtheurbanisationprocessin the Deep South. Pallavas and Western Chalukyas made a lot of cultural contributions
1. Both the states maintained the policy of religious tolerance.
• Pallavas apart from giving patronage to Brahmanism, patronised Buddhism as well.
• Likewise, Chalukyas apart from giving patronage to Brahmanism, patronised Jainism as well.
1. Pallavas and Chalukyas contributed to education and learning. They patronised a number

of scholars.

• The Pallava court was decorated with scholarslike Dandin, Bharvi and Matrideva etc.
• Dandin composed the text 'Daskumarcharita', Bharvi wrote the 'Kiratarjuniyam'.
• When Hiuen Tsang toured Kanchipuram, he mentioned Kanchipuram as a great centre for learning.
• Likewise, Chalukyan court was decorated by scholars like Ravikirti who composed 'Aihole inscription' of Pulakeshin II.
1. Pallavas and Chalukyas laid the foundations of two different styles of architecture viz.

Dravida style and Vesara style respectively.

Pallava architecture prepared the base for Dravida style.

• In fact, under the Pallavas, two different models of architecture, Rock-cut (cave) temple and free standing structural temple, came into existence.
• Furthermore, we can divide Pallava architecture among four groups such as Mahendravarmana style, Narsimhavarmana style, Rajasimha style and Nandivarmana style.
• In the first 2 groups, we see the development of Rock Cut Temples.
• The specificfeaturesof Mahendravarman style are the construction of Pillared halls hewn out of the mountain faces (Mandapas).
• The Mahendra group of monuments includes the cave temples at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur.
• Likewise, under Narsimhavarman, 'Ratha' style (free standing
• monolithic shrines) of temples developed.
• Some of the best examples of the Ratha style are the Pancha Rathas.
• The next phase is the structural phase when free-standing shrines were constructed with stone and mortar.
• The Rajasimha group encompasses the early structural temples of the Pallavas.
• The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, both were constructed by Rajasimha.
• The best example of the Nandivarmana group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.
• During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity. Likewise, under Chalukyas, the basis for the Vesara style of temple architecture was prepared.
• Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal were the important centres of temple construction under Chalukyas.
• The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages.
• The first stage was the early architectural phase (6 th-early 8 th centuries) and is represented by the cave temples and smaller structural temples at Aihole and Badami.
• The second stage was the later and grander 8 th century temples located at Pattadakal.
• In this region, temples in both the styles Nagara as well as Dravida were constructed.
• Later, they developed into a new form, Vesara style of architecture.
• At Pattadakal, Virupaksha (Dravidian) and Papanatha (Nagara) temples are great monuments of Chalukyan style.
1. Pallavasand Chalukyascontributedtothedevelopment of sculptureandpaintings as well.
• For example, under Pallavas, the Amaravati style of sculpture continued.
• Likewise, we find evidence of Pallava paintings from Sittanavassal.
• Chalukyas contributed to the development of paintings at Badami.

Religion

Syncretism of Deities

• An important characteristicofthenew Brahmanism wasitsgeniusto syncretisemany local deities and to evolve a super God.
• Syncretism in this context meant that deities worshipped at different places and by different people were recognized as identical and were worshipped as different manifestations of the same supreme deity.
• These theistic cults stressed the merit of worship rather than the performance of Vedic sacrifice.
• Thus, Vasudeva was identified with Vishnu, a minor Vedic god and Narayana, a god of obscure origin mentioned in the Brahmana literature.
• Then, Vishnu was closely connected with Krishna, who represented the fusion between a martial hero and a flute-playing pastoral deity.
• Vishnu assimilated many other cults; the cult of the 'divine boar' which prevailed among some of the tribes of Malwa, the cult of Parusrama, a Brahmana hero; and Rama, the great hero of the Ramayana.
• Then, Vishnu rose to the status of the Universal God in the Bhagavad Gita.
• Similarly, Shiva was syncretised with the Vedic Rudra and Bhairava, a tribal god. He was associated with phallus worship or Linga.
• Later, certain other deities such as Skanda (Kartikeya) and the Ganesha also got associated with Shiva.

Adaptation of Tribal Rituals

• Yetanotherimportantfeatureof later Brahmanismwasitsadaptationofcertaintribal rituals while keeping the Vedic Yajna rites supreme in theory.
• In course of time, the merit earned out of these new rituals was equated with the merit of the Vedic Yajnas.
• The sacred shrines of the tribal deities were included as new places of pilgrimage (Tirtha) by developing suitable myths to make them respectable.
• The Ithihasas and Puranas are full of such stories which inspire bhakti (devotion) to a personal god.

Spread of Bhakti in South India

1. All the major north Indian religions travelled southwards - Brahmanism, Jainism and

Buddhism.

• The Brahmanas brought with them Vedic Yajna cult and the two theistic cults, Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
• The kings were in favour of the Vedic rituals as Yajnas conferred ritual status on them.
• On the other hand, the theistic cults appealed to the people thus, it was important for the kings to support them as well.
1. Eventuallythedevotional theisticcultsweretoprovestronger whichwasrecognized even

by the royal patrons who extended support to Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other sects.

• Among the Chalukya and Pallava kings, some professed Bhagavatism and others followed the Pashupati cult.
• The famous bas-reliefs of Badami and the monolithic rathas (chariots) at Mahabalipuram testify to the popularity of the theistic cults.
1. The early form of theistic Bhakti was characterised by the syncretisation of local gods

with Brahmanical gods.

• This devotionalism characterised by the fusion of ecstatic local tribal cults (e.g. Velan Veriyadal-togainstrengthandprotection,theearly Tamilsemployedafrenzieddance which was associated with Murugan) and northern theistic schools.
• The Tirumurugarruppadai of Nakkirar is a famous devotional work on Murugan, a local tribal god.
• Murugan was syncretised with Skanda in this work.
• Tirumurugarruppadai was interpolated into Pattupattu (ten idylls).
• It is the earliest example of this cross fertilisation.
1. Tamil Bhakti was led by local poet saints.
• This movement was spearheaded in the 6 th century CE by gifted poet-saints who traversed the Tamil country with a missionary zeal.
• On their way, they sang their hymns, danced and debated with the heterodox cults.
• Amongthese poet-saints, the Shaivite saints were called the Nayanars andthe Vaishanava saints as Alvars.
1. It also had a strong note of social protest.
• Whereas the Brahmanas were obsessed with caste regulations, the Tamil Bhakti movement not only ignored caste but also included men and women of all castes.
• Among the Nayanars, Karaikkal Ammai was a woman and Nandanar was a member of the depressed class.
• Amongthe Alvars,Andalwasa woman and Tiruppan wasahymnist from alow caste.
• Thus, the Bhakti movement carried elements of protest and reform.
1. Tamil Bhakti soon emerged as a major popular movement.
• Unlike the Brahmanas, who propagated Hinduism through esoteric theories and Sanskrit, the hymnal saints sang in easily understood forms, only using the popular language, Tamil.
• Their Bhakti was not a reverence for a transcendent deity, but ecstatic love for an imminent one.
• Tamil Bhakti was not only characterised by an intense ecstatic piety for the deity, but also an aggressive militancy against the heterodox cults which were growing in popularity among the people with royal support.
• The hymns of the saints of this period are marked by an outspoken hatred against the Buddhists and the Jains.
• As a result, public debates, competition in performing miracles and
• testsoftheirrespectivedoctrinesbythemeansofordealsbecam every common.
• Unabletostandbeforetheforceof this Bhaktiwave,whichalsoattractedroyal support, Jainism and Buddhism had to retreat from the South.
• This great wave of religious enthusiasm attained its peak in the early 7 th century and its triumph was largely achieved in the two centuries that followed.
1. However, it soon became a part of the establishment, lost its early radical character and

got enveloped in the Brahmanical orthodoxy.

• The Bhakti movement ran parallel to the growth and consolidation of early mediaeval monarchies, first under the Pallavas and then under the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras.
• Manytemples were built for Shivaand Vishnu throughoutthe Tamil land by almost all the reigning monarchs.
• These temples were endowed with vast landed property, often tax-free.
• Extensive land was donated to the Brahmanas as is evident from the thousands of donatives inscriptions on the walls of the south Indian temples.
• A prince-priest nexus soon emerged.
• The monarchs welcomed the temple-centred bhakti (or unflinching loyalty) as it was suited to the monarchical ideology.
• The Brahmanas welcomed thisas it enabled Brahmanism, with its institutional base in the temple-centred agrarian settlements, to emerge as the most dynamic force in south India.
• Everywhere, the local temple was the nucleus of religious life and anew social formation.
• In these temples, the two arms of the Brahmanical religion -the ritualistic Vedic cult and the theistic devotional cult- could meet.
• The temple-centred Bhakti enabled the caste system to fold the tribes of south India into a hierarchical order.
• This order fixed the ritualistic and social status of the tribes with the Brahmanas as the fixed point of reference.
• The ideology of Bhakti could bring kings, priests and the common people together within a network of understandable social relations.
• With the increasing patronage of kings and landed magnates, the Bhakti movement soon became a part of the establishment.
• Thus, all traces of dissent, protest and reforms were obliterated by the 10 th century CE.
• The Alvars and the Nayanars did not appear any more.
• Their place was taken by Vaishanava Acharyas, all of whom were Brahmanas or the

Shaivite Acharyas, all of whom came from the rich landed Vellala caste.