Harshavardhan

The downfall of Gupta Empire in the mid-6 th century CE, resulted in the emergence of a number of small independent kingdoms in North India.

• The Huns established their supremacy over the Punjab and certain other parts of central India.

• The northern and western regionsof India into the handsof a dozen or more feudatories.
• An important ruling family to gain prominence in this region was that of the Pushyabhutis who had their capital at Thanesar (Thanesvara in Kurukshetra, Haryana).

• The dynasty became influential with the accession of Prabhakarvardhana, who
• was able to defeat the Hunas and strengthen his position in the regions of Punjab and Haryana.
• Some scholars suggest that in early days they were probably a feudatory of the Maukhari king of Kannauj.
• Prabhakara Vardhana had two sons called Rajya Vardhana & Harsha Vardhana
• and one daughter, Rajyashri.
• Prabhakara's daughter Rajyashri married the Maukhari ruler Grahavarman .
• As a result of this marriage, Prabhakara's political status increased significantly.
• He assumed the imperial title Parama-bhattaraka Maharajadhiraja. ("the one to whom the other kings bow because of his valour and affection").
• Prabhakarvardhana was succeeded by his elder son Rajyavardhana (Harsha's
• brother).
• Accordingtothe Harshacharita,after Prabhakarvardhana'sdeath, Devagupta,thekingof Malava attacked Kannauj, supported by Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda. Devagupta killed Graha-Varman, and captured Rajyashri.
• Harsha's brother, Rajya Vardhana marched against Devagupta and defeated him.
• But he was treacherously killed by Shashanka (ruler of the Gauda kingdom) who
• had joined the battle as an ally of Devgupta.
• Harshavardhana was only sixteen years of age at that time.
• He rescued his sister Rajyashri, just as she was going to commit sati.
• He united the two kingdoms Kannauj and Thaneshwar and shifted the capital to Kannauj.
• Shashanka continued to rule Gauda with frequent attacks from Harsha which he
• is known to have faced bravely.
• Shashanka was famous for destroying the Buddhist stupas of Bengal and persecuting Buddhists.
• Major contemporary sources of information on his life, including copper plates of his rivals Harsha and Bhaskaravarman, the accounts of Banabhatta (Harshacharita) who was a bard in the court of Harsha, and of the Chinese monk Xuanzang, and also coins minted in Shashanka's reign.

Harshavardhana (606 A.D - 647 A.D)

Sources of Harsha period

• Harshacarita written by his court poet Banabhatta.
• Banabhatta also wrote Kadambari. But he could not complete it, Bhusanabhatta,
• his son, completed it.
• Si-Yu-Ki,thetravelaccountof the Chinese Buddhistpilgrim Yuan Chiang,whovisited India during AD 629-644.
• Three romantic comedy works by Harsha himself:
• Ratnavali,
• Priyadarshika,
• Nagananda.
• Inscriptions belonging to his regime:
• Banskhera inscription.
• Madhuban plate inscription.
• Nalanda inscriptions and
• Sonepat inscriptions Among the above sources, The works Banabhatta and Yuan Chiang are considered as the most important ones.

Extent of his empire

• Harsha ruled over the northern parts of India for a period 41 years.
• Hiuen Tsang informs us that Harsha conquered the entire country within the first six years of his reign.
• However, the statement is not to be
• taken seriously.
• Harsha did not occupy even North India
• completely nor his wars and conquests were limited to the first six years of his reign.
• Harsha first invaded Bengal.
• The campaign was not very successful because evidence proves that Sasanka
• continued to rule over the greater part of Bengal and Orissa till 637 A.D.
• It was only after the death of Sasanka that Harsha succeeded in his mission.
• Harsha also exercised influence on the kings of Jalandhar and perhaps Kashmir.
• In western India, Harsha's early relations with the rulers of Valabhi were cordial but soon Malwa became the bone of contention between the two and so he had to turn his attention to western India.
• It resulted in the defeat of the Valabhi ruler, Dhruvasena II and his acceptance of
• the position of a feudatory vassal.
• His hostilities with Valabhis ended through a matrimonial alliance.
• Opinions differ about Harsha conquest of Nepal.
• An era mentioned in the Nepalese inscription can be taken as era of Harsha. So,
• we may say that He probably subdued Nepal.
• Harsha was also successful in his eastern campaign.
• A Chinese account mentions him as the king of Magadha in 641 A.D.
• The kingof Kamarupa, Bhaskaravarman,was hissubordinate ally. He helped in his
• campaign of Bengal and other partsof eastern India. It helped him gainingcontrol over Bengal and Orissa.
• He was victorious against the ruler of Sindh in the north-west as well.
• In the south the Narmada was the boundary beyond which Pulakesin II was ruling.
• Dr K.M.Panikkardescribesthattheempireof Harshaextended from Kamrupainthe East to Kashmir in the West and from the Himalayas in the North to the Vindhyas in the South.
• But Dr R.C. Majumdar has strongly refuted this view.
• He has maintained that the empire of Harsha included only Eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa, though his power was recognised by his neighbouring states in North India as was the case with the rulers of Vallabhi, Kutch and Kamrupa.
• However, Kashmir, Western Punjab,Sindh, Rajputana,Nepal and Kamrupawere
• certainly independent states in his days.
• Yet, Harsha has been regarded as a powerful emperor who, certainly, succeeded
• in providing unity to a large part of Northern India after the fall of the great Guptas.
• Thus, the extent of his empire was most of Northern and central India.
• While actual control was exercised in most of Gangetic plain, rulers in peripheral areas were ruling as feudal vassals.
• His relation with neighbours depended on political necessities of his empire.

Can Harsha be called the Last Great Hindu Emperor?

• Banabhatta and Hiuen Tsang have described Harsha as one of the greatest rulers of Northern India.
• Manymodern historianshave acceptedtheir version andhave,therefore,concludedthat

“Harsha was the last great empire-builder of Hindu period and his death marked the”

end of all successful attempts to restore the political unity of India."

• But Dr R.C. Majumdar, though recognising him as a powerful ruler of Northern India, is not prepared to accept him as one of the last empire-builders and Hindu rulers of India.
• In the North,the empireof Lalitadityain Kashmir,Yasovarman at Kannauj and of

Ganga and Karma of Kalachuri dynasty were not less than the empire of Harsha in extension of territories while those of Pala and Pratihara dynasties were certainly more extensive and proved more durable than the empire of Harsha.

• In the South, the Rashtrakuta kings Dhruva and Govinda III, the Chalukaya ruler Vikramaditya VI and the Chola ruler Rajendra, certainly, established far more extensive empires than the empire of Harsha.
• Thus, according to Dr R.C. Majumdar, it would be an act of injustice to Indian
• history if we accept Harsha as the last empire-builder of Hindu-India.
• However, Dr Majumdar accepts many virtues of Harsha.
• He writes, "While, therefore, it would be idle to pretend that Harsha

Vardhan's reign constitutes a distinctive age or marks an epoch in Indian history in any way, we cannot withhold our tribute of praise and admiration which is due to him as a great ruler, a brave military leader, a patron of arts and letters, and a men of noble impulses and distinguished personality."

• Harsha was a brave ruler and possessed qualities of a practical statesman which helped him in establishing quite an extensive empire in Northern India.
• Hesucceededhisbrotherwhenthekingdomof Thaneswarwasoneofsome other
• equally powerful kingdoms of Northern India and its position was quite critical.
• In the North-West and West, he had enemy states while in the East

Devgupta of Malwa and Sasanka of Bengal had succeeded in killing Graha Varman, his brother-in-law and Rajya Vardhana, his brother and had occupied Kannauj. Under these conditions, his own kingdom was not secure.

• But, Harsha took bold steps and pursued an aggressive policy.
• He entered into a diplomatic alliance with Bhaskara Varman, ruler of Kamrupa, occupied Kannauj and finally succeeded in occupying Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal.
• He fought against the ruler of Vallabhi which ultimately resulted in a matrimonial alliance between the two and helped in strengthening his position in the North.
• However, his effort to penetrate in the Deccan was checked by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king of the South.
• Further, he did not succeed much against Sasanka.
• Yet, Harsha succeeded in creating a powerful and extensive empire of his age in Northern India and we have no hesitation in accepting him as one of the empire- builders of Northern India.
• Therefore, Harsha has been regarded as a capable ruler and has been assigned a respectable place among the rulers of ancient India. Yet, he was neither the last great empire-builder nor a great emperor of ancient India.
• Harsha failed to provide that unity and emotional integrity to his empire which could succeed in the establishment of a great and enduring empire in India.

Therefore, his empire broke up soon after his death.

• Thus, the success of Harsha was personal and proved short-lived which proves
• that he lacked the qualities which would have succeeded in providing an enduring progress and unity to India. That is why he fails to be ranked among the great emperors of India though, of course, he has been rightly accepted as one of the great rulers of his own times.
• Theoretically, Harsha ruled as an autocrat. But in practice his rule was one of enlightened despotism.
• As the ministersandthevillagecommunitypossessed great power theyserved asacheck on the royal autocracy.
• "People lived in peace and happiness. The king made charities to the poor."

Administration of Harsha

• The Administration of Harsha Vardhana was theoretically despotic and in oriental despotism the sovereign is the centre of the State.
• Hence the success in administration depends on his ability and benevolence. (a) Civil Administration:
• The civil administration of Harsha Vardhana is highly praised.
• According to Hiuen Tsang, the day of Harsha was divided into three periods.
• One was devoted to State affairs and two for religious works.
• The king personally supervised the administration instead of relying upon the bureaucrats.
• He constantly toured the provinces and administered justice to all.
• During this tour he used to punish the guilty and made contact with the people.
• Rural and urban areas received equal attention.
• He suspended his inspection work during the rainy season on account of the
• difficulties of weather and communications.
• Hiuen-Tsang tells us that during the reign of Harshavardhana there were very few criminals and rebels.
• Whoever offended the law was strictly punished.
• The principal modes of punishment were mainly mutilation of limbs, banishment into the jungles, imprisonment etc. Trial by ordeal was also in vogue.

(b) Military Administration:

• Harsha had a well-organised standing army.
• It had elephants, camels, cavalry and infantry.
• Hiuen Tsang says that Harsha had 60,000 elephant's corps and a cavalry of one lakh.
• Bana says that horses were purchased from places like Kamboja, Sindh, Persia, etc. (c) Ministers and Advisors:
• He was assisted by a council of ministers, known as the Mantri-Parisad, who advised him in all important affairs concerning the state and on matters of foreign policy.
• There were a host of other high and low officers to manage the day to day governmental activities.
• Harsha Charita of Banabhatta provides us with a list of them.
• Other ministers and officials were
• Mahasandhivigrahika (supreme minister for peace and war),
• Mahapratihara (head of the palace-guards),
• Mahabaladhikrita (commander of the forces),
• Mahakshapatalike (chief accounts-officer),
• Nyayakarnika (judicial-officer),
• Bhandagaradhikrita (superintendent of stores),
• Kayastha (scribe), etc.
• The superior civil service was manned by Kumaramatyas or Cadet Ministers.
• According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha was just in his administration and punctilious in the discharge of his duties.
• Society was not choked by a grinding bureaucracy or overburdened by a heavy system of taxation.
• Families were not registered and individuals were not subject to forced labour contribution. (d) Feudalism
• Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas yet evidence shows that Harsha's administration was not as efficient and all pervasive as that of the Mauryas or that of the Guptas.
• His administration had become more feudal and decentralised. i.e the Nature of Polity was a confederate type of monarchy.
• Direct administration was less extensive than the sphere of influence.
• The accepted title of a great king in Harsha's days was Parma-Bhattaraka Mahesvara and Maharajadhiraja which implied the existence of lesser kings with considerable authority within the empire.
• The major part of the territory conquered by Harsha was ruled by such
• feudatories.
• Independent in the internal administration of their territories, they generally owed allegiance to a suzerain.
• Bana speaks of samanta, mahasamanta, pradhana samanta etc.
• The Local administration was, for all practical purposes, independent of the centre. The officer in charge of the district (ayukta) and the provincial official (kumaramatya) were the link between local administration and the centre.
• Village came under the control of rural bodies consisting of the headman and the
• village elders.
• Harsha maintained contact with public opinion both through his officers and by his own tours, which gave him the opportunity of supervising the administration.
• Most of the senior officers enjoyed the income of particular areas of land as remuneration of their posts as they were not paid in cash.
• But the lower grade officers were paid in cash.
• Thuswe findtracesof the Jagirdari system offeudalism in Harsha'sadministrative system.

Administrative Units

The administration of Harsha was similar to the Gupta Empire.

• Bhukti:
• The kingdom was divided into various provinces or divisions called Bhukti.
• Visayas:
• They were further divided into Visayas corresponding to modern districts.
• Pathaka:
• It was a smaller territorial term perhaps of the size of the present day taluk.
• Grama:
• The lowest unit of administration was Grama.

Economy under Harsha

• Economy under Harsha's reign became growingly more self-sufficient and feudal in nature as trade and commerce receded.
• Thisisreflectedinthedeclineoftradecentres,paucityofcoinsandnearcomplete
• disappearance of trader and merchant guilds. (though initially the economy of northern India prospered and his capital at Kanauj became a great centre of trade.)
• Diminishing trade and commerce affected handicraft and other industries through want of demand; and affected agriculture although not directly.
• As a result of the lack of trade, the need to produce agricultural goods for sale externally vanishedandpeoplebegan producingamountsadequateenoughtomeettheirown local

needs. This marked the rise of self-sufficiency in the village economy and the growing dependence on agriculture.

(a) Feudalism:

• When scholars mention Indian feudalism, the kingdom of Harsha is usually taken as a typical state.
• Insight into Harsha's state is given by the discovery of a set of plates of copper, dating back to 632 CE, recording the gift of land by a military officer under Harsha's service to two Brahmins.
• Donations before Harsha's reign had come from either a royal prince or one of the provincial governors.
• In the copper plates, the first dignitary mentioned was a Mahasamanta, who ruled a territory adjoining Kanauj.
• But, the donor of the land was a military servant of Kanauj, and the execution of
• the grant came under Harsha's accounts.
• This leads to the conclusion that the Mahasamantas were in fact independent
• rulers with kingdoms near the core area of an overlord - here, King Harsha - and they paid tribute and provided military assistance to him.
• Though they mayhave obtained theirterritories through inheritance or conquest, there were some who served kings and got grants in the form of land to support their official duties; a process similar to distribution of feudal grants in Europe.

(b) Finance:

• The main source of income of the State was land-revenue; it was 1/6 th of the agricultural produce. There were other taxes also, but they were light and the State's demands were few.
• The income of the State was spent under four categories:
• for the expenses of the state and ceremonial worship;
• for the advancement of ministers;
• for rewarding the clever, the learned and the talented;
• for acquiring religious merit by spending on the heretics.

(c) Harsha's Coins:

• A gold coin found has been attributed to Harsha. It has on it the legend Harshadeva with the figure of a horseman.
• Harsha is called Harshadeva not only in inscriptions but also in Bana's Harshacharitha.
• About 284 silver coins with the name 'Sri Siladitya' was discovered.

Patron of scholars

• Harsha iscreditedwiththecompositionofthree Sanskritdramas-Ratnavali,Priyadarsika and Nagananda.
• In addition, he is credited with two significant poems on Buddhist themes -
• Ashtamahasricaityastotra (Praise to Eight Grand Chaityas)
• Suprabhatastotra (Laud to Morning)
• A tract on grammatical gender, the Linganusasanam.
• Harsha's authorship has been disputed on several occasions, but no decisive
• contrary arguments have been proposed.
• He was also a skilled Calligraphist.
• His signature is found in the Banskhera copper plate inscription.
• He had an interest in poetry as well.
• The inscription of Banskhera and Madhuban plates are evidently his own
• composition.
• Jayadeva,12 th-century poet and author of the Gita Govinda, names Harsha along
• with Bhasa and Kalidasa.
• Banabhatta says that Harsha was a lute player and had wide learning.
• He patronised brilliant philosophers, poets, dramatists and artists.
• He allotted one fourth of the revenue from the crown lands for rewarding the
• learned.
• Hegaveliberallytothegreatseatofeducation,namely,the Universityof Nalanda.
• Harsha had a large number of Scholars in his court:
• Bana was the chief among them and he wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.
• Haridatta was also patronised by Harsha.
• Jayasena was famous for his learning in various subjects and Harsha offeredhimtherevenuesofeightvillagesin Orissa.However,theofferwas declined by Jayasena.
• Mayura the author of Mayurashataka, and
• Bhartrihari, the author of Vakapadiya, a grammarian, also lived at the court of Harsha.
• Bana mentionsmore than oncethata group ofskilledpainterspaintedauspiciousscenes.
• The iconoclastic zeal of the early Muslim invaders has left us not even a trace of these paintings nor the monuments erected by Harsha.

Religion

• Earlierhewasprobablya Saivabyfaith.Laterheconvertedto Buddhismaftercompletion of his conquests. Later on, he changed over to Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Hiuen Tsang.
• Hislandgrantinscriptionsdescribehimas Parama-maheshvara(supremedevotee
• of Shiva), and his play Nagananda is dedicated to Shiva's consort Gauri.
• His court poet Bana also describes him as a Shaivite.
• Harsha's conversion to Buddhism is attributed by Bana to the influence of the Buddhist ascetic Divakaramitra who lived in the hermitage in the Vindhya forests.
• It was however Chinese Pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) who definitely gave both Harsha and his sister their faith in Mahayana Buddhism by his discourse on its doctrines and exposure of the deficiency of Hinayana at the very first meeting between Harsha and him.
• It shows his conversion to Buddhism would have happened in the later part of his
• life.
• Yuan Chiang states that Harsha banned animal slaughter for food, and
• built monasteries at the places visited by Gautama Buddha.
• He erected several thousand stupas on the banks of the Ganges river, and
• built well-maintained hospices for travellers and poor people on highways across India.
• He was always tolerant of other religions. He built charitable institutions and did charity with generosity.
• Even Yuan Chiang states that Harsha patronised scholars of all religions, not just Buddhist monks.
• Harsha used to organise great religious festivals.
• Yuan Chiang mentions 2 great assemblies at Prayagraj and Kannauj.
• At these assemblies global scholars were invited and bestowed charitable alms on
• them.
• Accordingtothe Xuanzang,whovisitedhiskingdomin 636,Harshabuiltnumerous
• stupas in the name of Buddha.
• His approach to religion is evident in his celebrated play Nagananda.
• The play's theme is based on the Jataka tale of the Bodhisattva Jimutavahana, but Harsha introduces the Goddess Gauri, as the saviour of Jimutavahana, a feature not found in the Jataka.
• At Nalanda he erected a bronze temple, 100 feet high, and along the highway built rest houses and hospitals.

The Kanauj Assembly

• In 643 A.D. Harsha summoned an assembly at Kanauj.
• The object of the assembly was to take advantage of the presence of Hiuen Tsang to spread the teachings of Buddha in the country.
• A large number of kings attended the assembly.
• There were 3000 Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhist monks, 3000 Brahmanas and Nigrodhas and about 1000 Buddhist scholars from the Nalanda University.
• The meeting was presided by Hiuen Tsang where a topic on Mahayana Buddhism was discussed.
• The meeting lasted for 23 days. On that occasion a monastery and shrine was
• erected on thebanksof Gangaand agolden image of Buddha waskept ina tower, 100 feet high.
• A similar but smaller image, three feet in height was carried every day in a
• procession which was joined by 20 Rajas and 300 elephants.
• Harsha personally washed the image and carried it in the procession.
• Attheconclusionoftheassembly,Harshainrecognitiontothescholarshipof Hiuen Tsang offered him gold, silver, jewels and other valuables including garments. But Hiuen Tsang refused to accept them.
• Then Harsha placing Hiuen Tsang on an elephant led him in a procession proclaiming that he had established the standard of Mahayana doctrines overthrowing all opposing ones.

The Prayag Assembly

• After the assembly at Kanauj, Harsha, accompanied by Hiuen Tsang,proceeded to Prayag (Allahabad) at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna (and Sarswati) where he used to celebrate another solemn religious festival at the end of every five years (Kumbha Mela).

This assembly was the sixth of its kind during his reign.

• Harsha summoned histributary kings,the kingof Vallabhi and Bhaskar Varma, the kingof Assam; followers of different sects, Shramanas, Nirgranthas, the poor and the orphan and the needy to attend this assembly.
• On thefirst daythe image of Buddhawasinstal led in athatched buildingfollowed
• by the distribution of precious articles and clothing of the first quality.
• On the second day they installed the image of Aditya (Sun-god) and distributed in
• charity precious things and clothing to half the amount of the previous day.
• On the third day they installed the image of Shiva followed by distribution of
• charity and gifts as on the day before.
• This assembly lasted for three months.

Society during the time of Harsha

• The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang who visited India during the rule of Harsha has left valuable accounts of the observation which he had made on the society of those times.
• According to Hieun Tsang people were known for their honesty, courage and love for learning.
• They were not deceitful or treacherous in their conduct and were faithful in their
• oaths and promises.
• They were known for their personal hygiene and used to clean the floors of their
• houses with cow-dung and strewn it with season flowers.
• Theybatheddailyandsmearedtheirbodieswithscentedunguentslikesanda land
• saffron.
• They used to wash their hands before meals and fragments and remains of meals were not served up again.

The Nalanda University

• Not only from China but also from countries like Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Java, Tiber, Ceylon, etc., students came to India to study in her various universities including the University of Nalanda.
• Nalanda was an educational institute of higher learning or post-graduate studies.
• Here education was not confined to religious subjects nor it was connected with one religion or sect. Hindu and Buddhist literature in all their branches and other subjects like logic, grammar, medicine, Sankhya philosophy, occult science, etc. were studied.
• The university campus had many halls and buildings with storeys where about 8500 students and 1500 teachers lived. The students were provided with free education, food and lodging.
• The working hours of the university was of eight hours and nearly one hundred lectures were delivered everyday by many teachers, the famous of whom were Dharmapal (who

was the Kulapati of Nalanda when Hiuen Tsang was a student there), Arya Deva, Chandrakirti,Chandragomin,Gunamati,Prabhamitra,Buddhakirti,Jinamitra,Sumatisena, etc.

• Students seeking admission here had to pass a tough entrance examination and only about 20 percent could succeed in clearing it.
• The university had a big library comprising of three buildings known as 'Ratna-Sagar', 'Ratnadadhi' and 'Ratna Ranjaka'.
• Chinese traveller Yijing notes that revenues from 200 villages (as opposed to 100 in Xuanzang's time).
• Towards the end of twelfth century, Muslim invaders set fire to the buildings of the university, burnt the valuable library and killed the monks, teachers and students. The glorious career of a university famous the world over came to an end.
• Afghan military chief Bakhtiyar Khilji was the man who destroyed the great universities at Nalanda, Vikramsila and Odantapuri.

Harsha's Personality (characteristics of both Samudragupta and Ashoka)

• At a very young age Harsha took up the reigns of the kingdom and established a fairly large empire.
• His was a multi-dimensional personality.
• Not only was he a good administrator but also known for his political shrewdness.
• The way he made the ruler of Vallabhi into his permanent ally by giving his
• daughter in marriage to him is evidenced to it.
• Similarlythough the ruler of Gauda, Sasanka wasresponsible for the death of hisbrother,

Rajyavardhana, Harsha after rescuing his sister did not took a hasty decision to take on Sasanka given the precarious situation in which he had come to power after the death of his father, mother, brother and brother-in-law.

• Because of his ideas of administration and military achievements some historian like Dr. R. K. Mookerjee had declared that as a conqueror and administrator, as one solicitous of the well-beingof hissubjects Harsha combined inhimself piety of Ashokaand thevalour of Samudragupta.
• Both the ruler brought most of north India under their control and showed their
• might to the far flung rulers and reducing them to level of feudal vassal.
• Harsha having the piety of Ashoka:
• Hiuen Tsang described that Harsha conquered the entire country within the first
• six years of his reign. And then peacefully ruled for next 30 years without raising single arm.
• Ashoka had also involved in military activities only in early part of his rule and after the war of Kalinga he gave up war.
• Like Ashoka, Harsha too patronized Buddhism. Both are said to have converted to Buddhism and adopt its ideas.
• Yuan Chiang states that Harsha banned animal slaughter for food.
• Ashoka, asper hismajor Rock Edict I, also had Prohibited animal slaughter and Baned festive gatherings and killings of animals.
• Yuan Chiang further states that he erected several thousand stupas on the banks
• of the Ganges River, and built well-maintained hospices for travellers and poor people on highways across India.
• Ashoka also said to have constructed 84000 stupas and several Viharas for traveling monks.
• Religious assemblies were organised during both rulers. e.g,
• Third Buddhist council was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra under the patronage of King Asoka and under the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa.
• Harsha organised 2 major assemblies at Kannauj and Prayag under presidency of Yuan Chiang.
• Both kings are known for their generosity and made donations to different
• religious order.
• Both Harsha and Ashoka, though being converted to Buddhism were tolerant to
• other religions.
• For both Ashoka and Harsha the welfare of his subjects as his foremost duty and,
• except the rainy season, they constantly travelled over different parts of his empire to see things with his own eyes.
• Both were known for there benevolent nature.
• Kautilya states that "In the happiness of his subjects lies the king's happiness, in their welfare lays his welfare".
• Yuan Chiang also states that "Harsha even forgets to take meals or sleep for doing Public Welfare activities".
• Like Ashoka.Harshaalsomaintainedfriendlyrelationswithsomeofhisneighbors
• like Bhaskarvarman of Kamrupa and with ruler of Jalandhar.
• Ashoka also maintained friendly relations with his neighbors like Chola, Pandyas, Satyapura and Keralputra Kingdoms of South.
• Both Ashoka and Harsha had diplomatic relation with foreign rulers. While Ashoka sent envoys to Greek ruler, ceylon etc Harsha sent envoy to Chinese ruler.
• However, Some Historian like K. M. Panikkar states that there is no similarity between them except of the most superficial kind. The only point of comparison is perhaps that

they were both patrons of Buddhism. He says that Harsha was a military monarch for greater part of his reign. Some other points which raises doubts on such comparisons are:

• There are evidences that Harsha was involved in war even in his later part of his regime. E.g. the control over Bengal was gained only after the death of Sasanka in

637 Ce.

• Yuan Chiang states that Harsha built several monasteries and stupas. But it is not
• proved archaeologically.
• Ashoka concept of righteous conquest is not found during Harsha.
• Harsha having the valour of Samudragupta:
• Like Samudragupta, Harsha isalso known for his militaryconquests and victories.
• Both had waged many wars, followed a policy of expansion and aggression and
• established a vast empire.
• Harsha attempted to revive theimperial memories of Samudragupta andsought
• to unite the Northern and Southern India under one sculpture--in vain as the sequel proved.
• The Allahabad pillar inscription gives information about Samudragupta's
• conquests and great qualities. Similarly Banabhat and Yuan Tsang given information about Harsha conquests.
• However, this comparison with Samudragupta has been questioned by many scholars:
• Harsha ascended the throne of both Thanesar and Kannauj. This placed him in a
• privileged position for achieving his goals of empire building.
• Harsha was a capable commander but certainly no military genius or a great
• conqueror.
• He didnotsucceed much against Sasanka and,probably,was defeated by Pulakesin II while the friendship of Vallabhi ruler was bargained by entering into matrimonial alliance with him.
• On the other hand, Samudragupta got military success even in southern part of the country.
• The success of Harsha was personal and proved short-lived which proves that he
• lacked the qualities which would have succeeded in providing an enduring progress and unity to India.
• One the other hand, Samudragupta created an enduring empire which lasted for
• more than 150 years
• Therefore, the historians like Dr. R. C. Majumdar has questioned such view. Though considering him as a combination of the piety of Ashoka and the valour of Samudragupta

is questionable, Harsha was without doubt an enlightened monarch and deserves to be considered among India's greatest rulers of his time.

• Indeed Harsha was the last in a long line of the Hindu rulers who worked to build and organise a powerful state for the progress of humanity.
• But it will be wrong to think that Harsha made the last attempt for political unity
• of India.
• After his death we saw the rise and fall of several empires.
• Yetwecannotunderestimatehiscontributionasitwashewhomadethesmall Thaneswar a big power in Indian history.
• He was indeed a great scholar and equally a great administrator.
• His two admirers Banabhatta and Hiuen-Tsang spoke very high of him. It is but
• natural that they tried to paint him with exaggeration.
• Ancient Indian education and literature flourished during the time of the Harsha's rule.
• Harsha distinguished himself equally in the arts of peace and war.
• He was a great patron of learning. He himself was a good author and the three Sanskrit plays "Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika" exhibit his literary skill.

Harsha put in verse the story of Bodhisattva Jimuta-Vahana. But Jaydeva also praised Harsha as a poet.

• From Hiuen-Tsangwe came to knowthat Harshausedto spend one-fourth ofhisrevenue for patronizing the scholars.
• It is true that he patronized the University of Nalanda the greatest centre of Buddhist learning's.
• He had a literarycircle inhis court of which we know the name of Banabhatta, the
• famous author of Kadambari and Harsha Charita.
• Therewerealsootherstarslike Mayura,Divakara,Jaysenaandthe Chinesescholar Hiuen-Tsang.
• He was famous for his religious catholicity, benevolence and charities. At the royal lodge every day rations were provided for 1000 Buddhists monks and 500 Brahmanas.
• Even if we accept the documents of Banabhatta and Hiuen-Tsang with a grain of salt, we cannot in any way underrate the impact and contribution of Harshavardhana over the early history of India.

Aftermath

• Harsha died in 647, having ruled for 41 years. His empire died with him, disintegrating rapidly into small states.
• In 648, Chinese Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty sent Wang Xuance to India in response to Harshavardhana sending an ambassador to China.
• However once in India he discovered Harshavardhana had died and the new king (Arunashwa, the minister of Harsha, who usupred the throne) attacked Wang and his 30 mounted subordinates.
• This led to Wang Xuance escaping to Tibet and raising the army of over Nepalese
• mounted infantry and Tibetan infantry and attack on the Indian state.
• The success of this attack won Xuance the prestigious title of the "Grand Master
• for the Closing Court." He also secured a reported Buddhist relic for China.
• Chinese history texts tends to over-play Wang's influence at ending the Harsha Empire.
• Neither Bana's nor Xuanzang's account gives any details of this period. However, the greatness of Harsha has been questioned by many. His greatness is due to

Banabhatta and Yuan Chiang work to a great extent

• Harsha could become great because of the availability of sources in the form of accounts of Banabhatta and Yuan Chiang which were not for other rulers of the time. Apart from

mere availability of account, Harsha also became great because both of them have also exaggerated the account about Harsha.

• Banabhatta:
• Being court poet of Harsha and a childhood friend, he was mainly focused to
• emphasise achievements of Harsha and was silent about his failure.
• For example, he didn't mention about the check that Harsha met with duringhis campaign towards Deccan by Chalukyaruler Pulakesin II, onthe banks of river Narmada.
• His Harshacharitaistheonlysourceinmattersrelatedto Shashanka.While Harshaattacked Gaudabutitisnotclearwhetherhecouldavengemurder of his brother.
• Thoughitmentionedthatthepolicesystemwasveryefficientandtherewasafine
• system of spies throughout the state and secretly detected the crimes. There was a serious problem with law and order.
• Even Yuan Chiang himself was robbed more than once.
• Many scholars accused him of being biased in his writing and portrayed a dubious
• accountofthelifeofhispatronin Harshacharita.Banahasexaggeratedmanyfacts and praised him too generously.
• Bana's focus on his poetic skill also led to exaggeration.
• Yuan Chiang:
• His writing gives us information about social, political, economic, religious and
• administrative aspects of life in India.
• Though his writing is more trustworthy as it was written after he went back to
• china and thus was too secure to be affected by the reactions his account might produce in India, still, it is affected at some places:
• by author's preconceived ideas on the government and administration,
• his early scholastic training,
• the code of behaviour of his country and
• His favour for Buddhism.
• Given that Harsha turned out to be a great patron of Buddhism it was normal that Yuan Chiang mainly highlighted positive aspects of Harsha's rule.
• Many of his account looks exaggerated:
• He says that people are not subjected to forced labour, taxes are light, there is no infliction of corporal punishment.
• However, forced labour (vishti), various kind of taxes etc were typical features of post-Gupta period society.
• He also exaggerates by saying that Harsha was indefatigable in the discharge of his administrative routine, forgot sleep and food in his devotion to good work and spent most of the years in making tours of inspection throughout his dominions.
• He said that during the Prayagraj assembly, Harsha gave everything in devotion, even his clothes.
• He tells us that Harsha maintained a huge army. The number of foot soldiers was 5 lakh. The cavalry consisted of one lakh of horsemen. The elephant was roughly 60,000.
• This wasclearlyan exaggerated account which isclearer from the fact that Harsha was defeated by Pulakesin II.
• Further, in the quasi-feudal political system of this period,the existence of such a huge standing army is questioned.
• Harsha's tolerance to other religions is also questioned:
• At 1 st assembly at Kannauj, he published the doctrine of Mahayana.
• There was an attempt on his life probably by his theological rival. In reaction, Harsha killed many Brahmanas.
• This event shows the existence of religious conflict.
• Yuan Chiang's claim of Harsha building many stupas is not substantiated
• archaeologically.
• Other limitations:
• Society was divided on the line of varna system.
• This period witnessed the ascendancy of varnasramadharma.
• Status of Shudras and Vaishyas was depressed.
• The position of women seems to have suffered a further decline during this
• period. Remarriage of widows was not permitted particularly among the higher varnas. Sati and dowry was prevalent during this period.
• Economically,there wasdeclinein tradeand urban life. The guildsof artisansand
• merchants also began to lose their earlier importance.
• No evidence shows that Harsha took any step to revive the trade and commerce.

No doubt, Harsha was great and a competent ruler. In fact, after Harsha's rule whole north India wasdisintegratedintoregionalkingdomsandapowervacuumwascreatedwhichwastobefil led only after invasion of Turks in India. It was Harsha who could maintain a central authority in almost entirenorth India. Banabhatta'sand Yuan Chiang'saccount thoughfilled with praises and even exaggeration, are most valuable sources of that period.

Role of Maukharis in the rise of Harsha Harsha was one of the most powerful rulers in ancient India. He ruled over an extensive empire for more than four decades and accomplished great achievements.

Theriseof Harshaasthemostpowerfulrulerof North Indiawasfacilitatedbyanumberoffactors and forces and among them the Maukharis of Kannauj had played an important role.

1. Maukharis were the ruling group in the Gangetic Valley with Kannauj as their capital.
• During the post Gupta period, the Maukhari kingdom was the most powerful in North India.
• Theydid not allowthe later Guptas to fulfill theirpolitical ambition of establishing their central authority over North India.
• Because of this, a political vacuum had prevailed and this facilitated the rise of Harsha. He was not required to fight any major power in North India.
1. Harshvardhan's sister Rajyashri was married to the Maukhari king Grihavarman.
• This matrimonial alliance had enhanced the prestige of Harsha's family and secured the support of the most powerful Dynasty of North India for the small kingdom of Thanesar.
1. The untimely death of Grihavarman had resulted in the integration of the kingdoms of

Kannauj and Thanesar.

• Harsha'selderbrother Rajyavardhanwasassassinatedby Shashankaof Bengaljust when Grihavarman was killed.
• There was no immediate successor to the throne of Kannauj and Harsha had to shoulder the responsibility of both kingdoms.
• He transferred his capital from Thanesar to Kannauj and emerged as the overlord of North India.
1. The Maukharis had helped the Harsha's rise indirectly as well.
• The later half of the fifth and sixth centuries was characterized by Huna invasions which posed a threat to Thanesar.
• Maukhari king Ishanvarman had repeatedly defeated the Hunas.
• After being crushed by the Maukharis, the Huns could not dare to invade India in the future. Harsha wasn't required to fight these feared enemies. Achievements of Harsha
1. Political achievements

Harsha established his central authority over North India. He was the 1 st to do so after almost 100 years. Since the fall of the Gupta Empire, no power had been able to firmly establish its control in North India.

1. Harsha was an efficient administrator and to be personal interest in the affairs of the

state. He created an efficient and effective administrative mechanism.

1. Harsha had brought almost all of north India under a single authority. This was a truly

remarkable feat because after the decline of the imperial Guptas, very few examples of political unity can be seen in North Indian history.

1. The politico administrative system of Harsha was based on liberal principles, he was a

ruler with a welfare outlook. He invested time and energy in improving the life of his subjects. Peace and order was maintained by him throughout the Empire.

1. Harsha's greatest achievement was the subjugation of the feudal forces. The decline of

the Guptas was followed by the emergence of feudal elements in North India these centrifugal forces were successfully subdued by Harsha and the feudatories were kept in check by him.

1. The significance of Harsha's political achievements becomes magnified when the

circumstances of his period are taken into consideration. Harsha sat on the throne at a time when his kingdom was in deep crisis. His elder brother, brother-in-law had been killedbyenemiesandhisfatherhaddiedofshockwhilehissisterhadbeentakenprisoner.

Notonly Thanesarbut also Kannaujfacedseriouschallenges.Harsharosetogiveoccasion and face these challenges squarely.

1. Militarily achievements

Harsha was not only an efficient administrator, but a gifted military general as well.

1. Harsha maintained a large Army consisting of infantry cavalry and elephant force.
2. He conquered the Magadh region and adopted the title of 'Magadhraja'.
3. Bengal and Gujarat were also conquered by him. His kingdom extended from Punjab in

the west to Bengal and Orissa in the east. River Narmada in the south and Himalayas in the north were his other frontiers.

1. The military conquest of Harsha but not based on barbaric methods. Because of this the

significance of his military achievements is multiplied.

1. Diplomatic achievements
2. Harsha was aware of the significance of diplomatic relations, maintaining friendly

relations not only with Indian rulers but also with the rulers of foreign lands.

1. Baskar Varman, the king of Kamrupa was his close friend and gifts were exchanged

between them regularly.

1. According to Chinese records, three ambassadors were sent by the Chinese emperor Tai

Tsung to the court of Harsha. The third one arrived just a few months after the death of Harsha. Harsha had also sent emissaries to the court of the Chinese emperor.

1. Cultural achievements
2. Harshawashimselfafinescholarandwasagreatpatronoflearningandreligionhewrote

three famous books:

• 'Nagananda'
• 'Ratnawali'
• 'Priyadarshika'
1. Banabhattalivedinhiscourtandauthoredhisbiography'Harshacharita'.'Kadambari'was

also written by him.

1. The Chinese traveller Huien Tsang visited the court of Harsha and live there. Harsha

organised a Buddhist assembly in Kannauj in honour of Huien Tsang in 643 CE. This assembly was for the promotion of Mahayana Buddhism.

1. The philanthropic activities of Harsha were also highly significant. According to Huien

Tsang, Harsha used to organise the Maha Moksha Parishad at Prayag once every five years. The fifth such assembly was attended by Huien Tsang in 643 CE. During these assemblies Harshausedtodonatewhateverhehadearnedduringthepreviousfiveyears.

Limitations of Harsha's achievements

1. Harsha was a great ruler and his achievements, both in peace and war were truly

remarkable. However, a closer examination of the politico administrative, socio cultural and economic life indicates that his reign was not without limitations.

1. Harsha had successfully subdued feudal elements but he did not eliminate them.
• The centrifugal forces had remained in check only till the time that Harsha was
alive.
• Within a few months after his death, North India lost its political unity and small regional principalities resurfaced.
1. Socio cultural life of Harsha's period was marked by downhill trends.
• A number of social evils were present.
i. The status of women had declined sharply.

ii. Vaishyas also lost their social influence and social rigidity increased manifold.

• Feudal outlook dominated social life and the liberalism of the earlier periods had disappeared.Harshacoulddonothingtorevitalisethesocio-culturallifeofhisage.
1. The economic life of Harsha's period was also marked by the elements of decline.
• Secondary economic activities were no longer significant and agriculture became
themainstayoftheeconomy.Harshacoulddonothingtorevivearts,crafts,trade,

commerce and industry.

• The age of Harsha was marked by demonetisation and de-urbanisation. i. Accordingto Huien Tsang shells (cowries) and metal powder (churni) were used as media of exchange.

ii. Excavationshaverevealedthatcitieslike Ahichchatraand Kaushambiwere abandoned during the seventh century.

Huien Tsang and his teachings

1. He was a Chinese traveller who visited India during Harsha's reign between 629 to 645

CE. He left behind his observations in his book 'Si-Yu-Ki'.

• Thisbookcontainsanumberofreferences about Harshawhichtendtoexaggerate his real achievements.
1. According to him, Harsha ruled over the five Indies.
• This seems to suggest that his empire was extremely large.
• But a closer examination of contemporary sources confirms that these five Indies
were only five parts of North India.

i. Kanyakubja (Kannauj)

ii. Saraswat (Punjab)

iii. Gauda (Bengal)

iv. Mithila (Bihar)

v. Utkal (Odisha)

1. According to him Harsha's army consisted of five lakh foot soldiers, one lakh cavalry and

60,000 elephants.

• But other contemporary sources do not support this great military strength.
• If Harshahadactuallycommandedsuchalarge Army,hewouldprobablynot have been defeated by the Chalukyan King Pulkesin II as confirmed by the Aihole inscription.
1. Huien Tsang says that the rate of land revenue and Harsha's Kingdom was 1/8 of the

produce but other sources indicate that the normal rate of revenue was 1/4.

1. He portrayed Harsha as a great builder but none of Harsha's monuments have been

discovered by archaeologists.

1. According to him, Harsha maintained a department of archives and records which used

to register every important event taking place in the Empire.

• However no such records have been discovered.

Gupta Period (C. 300 Ce To 600 Ce)

Gupta period (c. 300 CE to 600 CE)

The Rise of Guptas

• The historiography of Gupta Dynasty becomes clear from the time of Chandra Gupta I (c. 319-335 CE).
• Earlier Gupta might have been feudatories of Kushanas.
• But,Chandra Gupta Ibecame the 1st sovereign kingashewasthefirstto take thetitle of 'Maharajadhiraja'.
• Possibly, Guptas acquired some essential military technologies from Kushanas which became an important factor in their success.
• Unlike earlier periods, this time the initiative for empire building was taken in the upper Gangetic basin.
• In other words, the Guptas started their kingdom from Prayag (Allahabad).

Role of matrimonial relations in foundation and consolidation of Gupta Empire

Matrimonial relations played the same role in foundation and consolidation of Gupta Empire as it had played in the case of Magadhan kings earlier.

• Chandra Gupta I was the first one to adopt this method to consolidate his position in the middle Gangetic basin.
• He married a Lichchhavi princess Kumara Devi.
• Thatthisrelation wasimportantforhim, canbe surmisedfromthefacttha the engraved the name of 'Kumara Devi' on his coins.
• Later even his son, Samudra Gupta preferred to call himself 'Lichchhavi- dauhitra' (son of the daughter of Lichchavi).
• It may be inferred that Lichchavi state was a powerful state in North India during this time.
• So, matrimonial relationswith Lichchavi might have strengthened the position of Guptas.
• Samudra Gupta also tried to strengthen his position through matrimonial relations.
• Inthecourseofhisvictorymarch,heconvertedthevariousdefeatedkings into his feudatories.
• He presented the proposal of 'Kanyopanya' (offering a daughter to the sovereign king) as a condition to his feudatories.
• In fact, in the feudal set up of those days, matrimonial relations were possibly the best guarantee against the treacherous behaviour of feudal lords.
• Matrimonial relationship was vital in the diplomatic scheme of Chandra Gupta Il too, the successor of Samudragupta.
• He married off his daughter Prabhavati Gupta to a Vakataka king Rudrasen II.
• With the support of Vakatakas, he defeated Shaka king of Gujarat area and consolidated his control over central India also.
• Further,hehimselfmarried a Nagaprincesswhichmighthaveconsolidatedhis position in North India. Parakramah (brave) Samudra Gupta: Is it a reality or myth that Samudra Gupta was a great conqueror and empire builder?

A court scholar of Samudra Gupta, Harisena has given an elaborate account of the great conquest of Samudra Gupta.

• According to his account, he conquered different parts of India in several stages.
• In 1 st stage, he defeated and uprooted 9 states in Gangetic basin including Vidisha, Ahichchhatra and Champavati.
• During the 2 nd stage, he conquered some republics in Punjab and some bordering states.
• In the 3 rd stage, he defeated 'Aatvika' or forest states.
• In the 4 th stage, he defeated and conquered 12 states in the Deccan.
• In the 5 stage, he defeated some foreign states in the North-West region including Shakas, Murundas and Devaputra Shahanshahi.
• But Samudra Guptadid not bringall the region under hisdirect control,rather,hehad direct control only over Gangetic basin and nearby regions.
• The area of conquest was divided into 3 Zones
• Graham: Directly Ruled Regions
• Anugraha: Under Indirect Rule of Feudatories
• Moksha: Defeated Rulers were Restored and Freed
• Samudra Gupta, according to Harisena, presented some conditions before the feudatories and defeated kings.
• 'Atmanivedan' (seeking of grace)
• 'Kanyopanya' (offering of a daughter)
• 'Garudamandaka'(toreceivetheroyalemblemasasub-ordinateruler).
• Surprisingly, Samudra Gupta engraved the account of his military conquests on the same Allahabad pillar, on which earlier a peace loving king Ashoka had engraved his message of 'Dhamma'.
• What could be the reason behind this move?
• Either, he was trying to highlight some link of Guptas with Mauryas or
• he might have been showing a reaction against the policy of peace of Ashoka.
• But we can't ignore the fact that we are solely dependent on a single account for the knowledge of the military success of Samudra Gupta i.e. Allahabad inscription.
• As a court scholar, neutrality of Harisena is doubtful. Therefore, the question arises whether the account is more of a myth than a reality?
• We can't say so.
• Although, there may be some exaggeration in the description of Harisena, for example Harisena projects Sri Lanka as a tribute paying state.
• But, as a source material, it still has relevance. Information from the Prayag Prashasti can be cross-verified in various ways.
• First, by a critical reading of the account.
• Second, some of the information given by Harisena has been
• corroborated by some other evidences like Vakataka inscriptions as well as the text like 'Raghuvansam' of Kalidasa.
• That'swhy, we cantake the account of Harisena more as a realitythan amyth. Chandra Gupta 'Vikramaditya: (A conqueror with a rare passion for Art & Literature)

It is said that Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya' combined the military prowess of his father with the diplomatic acumen of his grandfather in his own personality.

• He strengthened his position through a matrimonial relation with Vakataks and conquered Gujarat region after defeating Shakas.
• Theconquestof Gujaratmighthaveencouragedthe economic&commercialactivities within the empire.
• Likewise, the inscription engraved on the iron pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi gives us information about the conquest of a king 'Chandra'.
• Chandra has been identified with Chandra Gupta 'Vikramaditya'.
• In this inscription, he has been credited for conquering Banga region (Bengal) and Bahlik region (Indus).
• In this way, Chandra Gupta 'Vikramaditya' continued the conquest march started by his father Samudra Gupta.

Simultaneously, Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya was a cultured personality as well.

• He maintained a policy of religious tolerance in his empire.
• Apart from that, he patronised a large number of scholars, popularly known as 'Navaratnas' (nine jewels/luminaries).
• Kalidasa & Vishakadatta composed their masterpieces during his period.
• Likewise, Amar Singh, another court scholar, wrote the famous Amarakosha (a lexicon).
• It was during his period that his military commander built the famous 'Boar temple' (Varaha temple) at Udayagiri.

Features of the Administrative Structure

1. Increasingdecentralisation wasone of the significantfeatures ofthe Gupta administration.
• This phenomenon of decentralisation should be viewed in context of the changing socio-economic condition of the time.
• Due to the emerging feudalism and the phenomenon of land grants, decentralisation tendencies were encouraging and the state was gradually shedding off much of its responsibilities.
1. While the Mauryan kings preferred to take the titles like 'Devanampiya' and 'Raja', Gupta

kings took higher titles like 'Maharajadhiraja', 'Paramesvara', 'Parambhattaraka' etc. on their coins and inscriptions.

• But, these pompous titles don't prove at all that the Gupta kings gained in power, rather, it seems that they took these titles to differentiate themselves from the subordinate kings and intermediaries under them.
1. Kings continued to profess the divine right of kingship.
• Divinity was attached to royalty. E.g. Samudragupta compared himself with gods like Indra, Varuna, Yama and Kuber (four of the Digpals i.e. the 10 gods who are the guardians of 10 directions, according to the Purana tradition).
1. During the Gupta period, the number of officers decreased in central administration in

comparison to the Mauryan period.

• Allahabad Prashasti mentions a council of ministers, Sabha. It had officers like:
• Mahamatya (Prime Minister)
• Sandhivigrahaka (external affairs minister/ minister of war and peace)
• Maha Dandanayaka (Police Superintendent)
• Mahabaladhikrita (military commander)
• Mahapratihara (guard of the palace)
• But, the post of these officers became hereditary and one person started to occupy more than one office.
• For example, Harisena was holding the posts of Mahamatya, Maha Dandanayaka and Sandhivigrahaka simultaneously.
• Harisena's father was also a Mahadandnayaka.
• Udayagiriinscriptiondescribes Virasena,the Sandhivigrahakaof Chandragupta II, was also a poet.
• The Karamdanda inscription of Kumaragupta mentions two generations of Mantri-Kumaramatyas who served two generations of Kings.
• This possibly means that these ministers were more than simple bureaucrats.
1. Under Guptas, the empire was divided into provinces (Bhuktis). But, the element of

supervision on the provincial administration definitely declined during this period.

• The head of a Bhukti was known as Uparika or Uparika Maharaja.
• The Uparikas were enjoying more power than the Kumaras under Mauryas.
• In at least three copper plate inscriptions found from Damodarpur, the Uparika has the titles like Maharaja, indicating the importance of this office.
1. However, this structure was not uniform.
• Such variations may have happened because of the overlap between the developing feudalism during the Gupta period and the administrative apparatus of the Gupta kings.
• The Eran pillar inscription of Budhagupta refers to Maharaja Surashmichandra as a Lokpal governing the land between Kalindi and Narmada rivers.
• Also, Skandagupta's Junagadh inscription mentions that he commissioned the Goptri (governor) of the Saurashtra province to repair the Sudarshan Lake which had been damaged by torrential rains.
• This Goptri, in turn, appointed his son to govern the city where the inscription was put up.
1. In district (Vishay) administration, we come to know about the officers like Vishayapati or

Kumaramatyas.

• During this period, the centre did not have a strong supervision on the district administration as was the case during Mauryan period.
• For example, district officers like Vishayapati or Kumaramatyas were being appointed by provincial officers, Uparikas, in most of the cases.
• One of the Damodarpur (Dinajpur, Bangladesh) mentions that Chittradatta, the Uparika of Pundravardhan Bhukti, appointed Kumaramatya Vetravarman as the head of the district council (Adhishthana Adhikarana) of Kotivarsha Vishaya.
• The designation 'Kumaramatya' also occurs on six seals found from Vaishali and the designation 'Amatyas' occurs on some Bhita seals.
1. One important feature of the Gupta administration was the representation of the local

elements in the district administration.

• Forexample,atthelevelofdistrict,wecometoknowaboutalocalcouncil'Adhisthana

Adhikarana' which comprised of five members

• Vishayapati (possibly the head of the council),
• Nagarasreshesthi (chief banker/merchant),
• Sarthavaha (chief of the caravan traders),
• Prathamakulika (chief craftsman)
• Prathama Kayastha (chief of the scribes)
• It wasa district councilinwhich localelements were givenrepresentation.Thedistrict officer had to work in association with this town council.
1. Likewise, an administrative unit consisted of a group of villages below the district/ Vishay

level, called Vithi.

• Here, the officer was Vithi Mahattara/ Ayukta.
• At this level as well, there was a local council named as Vithi Parishad or Ashtakula- Adhikarana (a board of eight members).
• In this council, Kutumbins (cultivators) and Mahattaras (head of villages) were given representation.
1. Even in town administration, we come to know about the town council Adhisthana-

Adhikaran.

• This council consisted of members like Vishayapati, Nagar-Shresthi (head of the finance), Sarthavaha (head of merchants), the Pratham Kulika (representative of artisans) and the Pratham Kayastha (representative of scribes / clerks).
• When we compare the town administration under the Mauryan period and the Gupta period, we find out that Megasthenes talked about the town committees.
• But,these committeeswere differentfrom the councilsunder Guptasasthese committees were appointed from above.
1. Under the Guptas, the lowest unit of administration was the village.
• During this period, one important development was the growing power of the village administration, caste institutions and the guilds.
• They played a significant role in the administration.
• The Sanchi inscription of the time of Chandragupta II mentions a 'Pancha Mandali' which may have been a village corporate body.
1. The Vakataka inscriptions indicate that the Vakataka kingdom was divided into

Rashtra/Rajya which in turn were divided into Vishaya and the Vishaya were subdivided into aharas/bhogas etc.

• The Rajukas, the revenue assessment officers of the Mauryan times, were now the writers of the land grant charters, according to the Indore plates of Pravarasena II.
• The inscriptions of the feudatories of Vakatakas refer to some additional administrative posts.

Economy

• The picture of economic life during the Gupta age was a mixed one.
• Agriculture continued to develop throughout this period
• However, the urban economy was characterised by the element of continuity and change.
• During the first half of the Gupta age, the process of urban growth
• continued without any restriction.
• But around the mid-fifth century CE, the urban economy entered a
• phase of decline.
• These changes were the outcome of both internal as well as external forces.

Agrarian Economy

During the Gupta period, the agrarian economy grew due to the following reasons.

1. Due to the land grants, cultivation extended into new regions.
• Generally, the grants during Gupta period were given in bordering regions and a substantial part of these grants included uncultivated land.
• So, grantees were supposed to develop these uncultivated lands with the help of Shudra peasants.
• During this period, the importance of agriculture definitely increased in the overall economy.
• This phenomenon is approved by the text Amarakosha which mentions 12 different types of land.
• Apartfrom that, the growingimportanceofagriculture canbeimpliedeven on the basis of the growing number of taxes associated with agriculture.
1. Furthermore, efforts were made for the development of irrigation.
• During the reign of Skandagupta, his officials Parnadatta and Chakrapalit got the Sudarshana Lake repaired.
• Likewise, from Harshcharita of Banabhatta, we come to know about the Ghatiyantra.
• The Brihat Samhitaand Amarakoshathrowlightonthescientificmethodsofirrigation.
1. The Brihat Samhita and Amarakosha also talk about the different typesof plants- wild and

agrarian varieties of crops.

• Even horticulture was encouraged possibly due to the development in the technique of grafting.
• Grafting two varieties of fruits has been mentioned in the 'Brihat Samhita'.
1. But during this period, feudal relationships emerged in the agrarian structure due to the

phenomena of land grants.

• The traditional rights of peasants were adversely affected due to the introduction of a large number of intermediaries into the agrarian structure.
• For example, Amarkosha talks about the different layers of landed class such as Mahipati, Kshetraswami and peasants.
• Furthermore, during this period forced labour/ bonded labour became more common.
• One can find the first epigraphical evidence of forced labour in Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman.
• Contemporary Gupta inscriptions primarily from the Malwa region also mentionthattherecipientsoflandgrantshadtherighttoextractforcedlabour i.e. 'Vishti/ Vrishti'.
• Vatsayana's Kama Sutra and Skanda Purana also hint towards the use of forced labour and begar respectively.

The agrarian structure involves the social, economic and technical factors that affect the productivity of farmers, the distribution of the farm income and the social hierarchy of the rural population.

Theagrarianstructurealsoincludestheprocessoflandmanagementandlandtenure system.

Urban Economy

300 Ce - 450 Ce

• The economy of India reached its peak during this age and remarkable progress was witnessed in every sector of the economy.
• Contemporary sources like the works of Kalidas, Vishakhadatta, Shudraka, Kamandaka the 'Kama Sutra' of Vatsyayana, hint towards a prosperous urban life.
• Even Fa-Hein, who visited India during the 4 th century CE, talks about the prosperity of Pataliputra and Madhya Desha.

Craft Production

During this period, the development of handicraft industries continued to flourish. Literary texts of this period give reference to the production of different kinds of goods.

• Craftsmanship associated with pottery, furniture and domestic utensils continued and it played a significant role in the internal trade.
• In textile production, cotton goods, silk goods and woollen goods occupied an important place.
• The Amarakosha gives reference to the production of cotton goods.
• Even in the paintings of Ajanta, we find glimpses of superb quality clothes.
• Benaras, Mathura and Kamrup etc. were the important centres for the textile production.
• From Mandasore, we get inscription based reference to the guild of silk weavers.
• The production of gems and jewellery became important.
• The Brihat Samhita mentions different types of gems and jewelries.
• Likewise, during this period, metallurgy was at a developed stage.
• As an example, we can take the iron pillar of Chandragupta Vikramaditya at Mehrauli and Gupta gold coins.
• During this period, even leather based crafts developed further.

Trade

Apart from the internal trade, even external trade was in a developed position during this period.

• The Gupta Empire maintained trade relationships with the Western world.
• For example, its trading partners in the West were Persia, Arabia and Eastern Roman Empire etc.
• Likewise other trading partners were China, Burma and South-East Asia.

Factors for the growth of trade

• Political unification under the strong centralised administration of the Guptas acted as a catalyst for economic growth.
• When Chandragupta Vikramaditya conquered Gujarat, it further encouraged trade & commerce, because the Guptas came to control the most important port of western coast, Bharuch.
• The growth of India's overseas trade was also facilitated by the advancement of ship building.
• Contemporarysources inform usthat the largest shipsin the world,capable of carrying 500 people, were manufactured in India.
• During this period, the merchants and artisans were organised into corporations and guilds.
• Guilds maintained their own laws, seals and flags and were recognized by the state.
• They also played an important role in administration.

Items of Export and Import

• The most important item for import was horses.
• India's external trade was highly favourable towards India.
• Large quantities of luxury items such as silk, pepper, ivory and sandalwood were sent to the Roman Empire.
• These exports were balanced by the influx of horses and bullion making India a sink of precious metals.
• During the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-190 CE), silk was worth its
• weight in gold.
• When Alaric I, the king of the Visigoths, laid siege to Rome in 408 CE, he demanded a ransom of 4000 rolls of silk and 3000 pounds of black pepper.

Money Economy

• The level of monetisation was exceptionally high.
• In fact the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in the entire history of ancient India.
• Chandra Gupta IIissuedsilver coinsforthe 1st timeduringthisperiodafter the conquest of Gujarat (Shakas).
• However, the debasement of currency was also visible especially during the Later Gupta Age.
• It appears that higher denomination coins were more frequently used compared to lower denomination coins during this period.
• But, they were used mainly for sale/purchase of land and to make payment in higher value transactions.
• This may suggest the presence of feudal tendencies in the economy even during this period.

450 - 750 Ce

1. The process of urban economic decline characterised by falling trade, crafts production,

monetisation and feudalisation, set in by the middle of the fifth century CE.

• This period witnessed a considerable debasement of currency.
• Further, the use of copper coins was also becoming more and more limited.
• Also, we have evidence that the common people were using cowries' (shells) as a medium of exchange.
• This suggests a rising economic crisis and resulting demonetisation.
1. This was brought about by a combination of internal and external factors.
• The emergence of the Hunas, a warlike group from Central Asia, and their incursion into India affected trade.
• Their presence in north-western part of the Indian subcontinent disrupted India's overland external trade.
• They began invading India roughly around the last years of the reign of Kumaragupta I. This further destabilised the economy.
• The decline of the Roman Empire towards the end of the 5 th century CE gave a big shock to India's external trade and overall economy.
• Rome was a big consumer of Indian luxury goods and India's trade with Rome was a major component of material prosperity.
• The urban economic crisis deepened with the disintegration of the Gupta empire in the middle of the sixth century CE. Central authority disappeared completely and north India became fragmented into a number of regional principalities.
• Thelackofpoliticalunityanduniformadministrationobstructedinternal trade and commerce.
• The frequent warfare among these regional kingdoms further suppressed commerce.
• The beginning of sericulture (production of silk) in the western world around 600 CE greatly reduced the demand of Indian silk. This gave another blow to India's overseas trade.
• The beginning of the Sino-Tibetan conflict (700 CE) adversely affected India's trade with China.
• The decline in trade and commerce adversely affected industries and crafts production because the demand for manufactured goods reduced significantly.
1. With the decline of economic prosperity, urban growth could not be maintained in the

second half of Gupta Age.

• But here, the decline of urbanisation does not mean a complete disruption of urban tradition.
• After all,the texts written duringthis period arefull of floweryaccountsof city life.
• According to the importance given to the urban milieu in the Tamil epics, urbanisation remained a continuous process in the Tamilkam from the post- Mauryan period onwards.

Impact of Economic decline

• The decline of secondary economic activities increased the economic significance of agriculture.
• The ruralisation of the Indian economy took place as a result of deindustrialisation.
• Deindustrialisation also resulted in de-urbanisation.
• Cities such as Ahhichatra and Kaushambi were abandoned during the seventh century CE.
• The decline of the money economy resulted in the expansion of the system of land grants, giving way to the emergence of closed self-sufficient estates village economies.
• Social rigidity increased enormously and a strong feudal outlook began to dominate the society.
• Withthedeclineof trade,the social status of Vaishyas decreased.On theother hand, with the increasing importance of agriculture, the condition of shudras relatively improved.
• The society became inward looking and insulated. Contact with the outside world was deliberately discouraged by the use of religion and caste rules.

Society The Gupta society was based on a complex structure.

A number of factors contributed to the growing complexity in the Gupta society, viz.

• Brahmanic revivalism
• Assimilation of tribal elements in society
• Growth in the regional economy This complexity is best reflected in the institutions of Varna and Caste.

Varna and Caste

1. According to the Brahmanical scheme of social structure, society was divided into four

Varnas-Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudras.

• Each Varna was supposed to perform the set of duties prescribed to it and enjoy the rights conferred on it.
• The state was expected to preserve this supposedly divinely ordained social order.
• This meant that even when a small state emerged in some corner of the country,the Kingofthatstatewasexpectedtorecognizethisidealsocialorder.
1. The Brahmanas came to exert considerable influence on the kings fromthe Gupta period.
• This is quite clear from the way they received land grants from the kings and their feudatories.
• The kings, officials and other feudatories gave land not only to the individual Brahmanas, but also incentivised bigger groups of Brahmanas to settle in remote areas.
• Thus, the number of Brahmana settlements (variously called Brahmadeyas, Agraharas and so on) started increasing.
• These Brahmanas started spreading, inter alia, the idea of a Varna divided social order into hitherto untouched areas.
1. However, this four-fold Varna division was an ideal order
• Due to the spread of agriculture, there were many social groups/ tribal groups/ occupational groups whose Varna identity could never be determined.
• Secondly, it was assumed that the Varnas would perform their duties.
• In reality, they may not have always done so. 3.Therealsocietywasdifferentfromthisidealsocietyandthiswasrecognizedbythewriters of the Dharmashastras.
• Therefore, theytried to fix thestatus of various caste groups(Jatis) in the social order by giving fictitious explanations of their origins.
• Theytheorisedthatvarious Jatiswereactuallyvarna-samkarasortheproduct of intermarriages between various Varnas.
• The various foreign ruling families of the pre-Gupta period, Greek, Scythians etc. were given a semi-Kshatriya status (Vratya-Kshatriya), because they could not be considered of a pure Kshatriya origin.
• Similarly fictitious origin stories were weaved for the tribal groups who
• came to be absorbed into the Brahmanical society.
• Local cults, deities, rituals etc. were linked with the Brahmanical religion via the concept of reincarnation (avatars) of the prominent deities like Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti etc.
• The Dharmashastras also speak of apadharma (conduct to be followed during periods of distress).
• This means that the Varnas could take up the professions and duties not usually assigned to them in extraordinary situations.
• However, the agency of occupational mobility was available only to the upper Varnas.
1. These changes of course originated much before the Gupta period, as the Brahmanical

revival had started with the beginning of the Puranic traditions itself.

• But, with the spread of the Brahmanas to different parts of India during the Gupta period, the social structure became very complex.
• The new society had to absorb many social groups.
• Thus, the actual social structure came to vary from region to region. At the same time certain ideas were common:
1. The Brahmans came to be recognized as the purest and therefore, the highest Varna.
• Since they were associated with Sanskrit learning and performed priestly functions, they easily connected with royal power.
• Even when the rulers were supportive of Buddhism, Jainism or any particular religioussect,theycontinuedtopatronise Brahmanas,particularlythelearned ones.
• This remained one of the major reasons for the economic prosperity and prestige of the Brahmanas.
1. Ideally there were four Varnas, but there were various groups who were kept out of this

scheme. These were the antyjas (untouchables). We can underline the growing number of untouchables and their declining condition.

• Katyayana was the first Smritikara (Smriti writer) who used the term 'untouchable'.
• Furthermore, we find 10 different terms for untouchables in Amarakosha.
• Fa-Hein also mentions their deplorable condition.
• It means the number of untouchables increased during this period.
• Not simply that even the social condition of untouchables became worse.
1. The transformation of a large number of craft groups into the caste groups resulted in the

proliferation of castes.

• Those associated with production activities were relegated to a lower status.
• However, those castes which were associated with the agrarian structure enjoyed a higher social status.

4.Therelativedeclineinthepositionof Vaishyasandarelativeimprovementintheposition of Shudras was an important feature in the Gupta society.

• For example, Yajnavalkya accepted Shudras as cultivators.
• Furthermore, he declared that in place of pronouncing 'Omkaras', the term 'Namah' could be used.
• By using this term, even Shudras could perform Pancha Mahayajna.
• Likewise, a decline in the social position of Vaishyas took place due to some reasons.
• There was decline in trade and commerce during the last phase of the Gupta period.
1. During this period, there was a relative decline in the social condition of women.
• During this period, old restrictions were becoming more severe and new restrictions were being added.
• Right from the period of Manu Smriti, widow remarriage was getting increasingly restricted and early marriage for girls was becoming the norm.
• Although Yajnavalkya prescribed the right to property to women, some other Smritikaras like Narad and Brihaspati opposed it.
• Likewise, we find evidence of the Devadasi system during this period.
• Kalidasa mentions in histext Meghadutam that the Devadasis were working in the Mahakala temple at Ujjain.
• Furthermore, in his text 'Abhigyan Shakuntalam', Kalidasa gives a hint towards the faint beginning of the Purdah system when he uses the term Abgunthan.
• It means that the high born women were supposed to cover their faces at public places.
• Above all, it was during this period that we find the first epigraphic evidence of the Sati system (Eran inscription, c. 510 CE).
• So,quiteopposedtotheidealpictureandexaltedpositionofwomenincontemporary literature, the actual social position of women only declined.
• Their perpetual tutelage was argued forcefully.
• The social philosophy demanding a complete subjection of women to men was a natural development in a patriarchal set up which was based on the notions of private property.
1. During the Gupta period, Slavery system declined.
• Although Narad talks about 15 types of slaves, the slavery system was weakened as Narad performed rituals for the liberation of slaves.
• In fact, by this period, the slavery system lost its earlier economic importance as a result of the development of forced/ unpaid labour known as 'Vishti' or 'Begar'.
• The growth in the unpaid labour might be due to the fact that peasantry was tied to the land in the land grants.

Religion The religious landscape of the Gupta period was marked by complexity. In fact, a number of factors contributed to this complexity:

1- Brahmanic (sacrifices cult) revivalism 2- Assimilation of tribal elements into the mainstream socio-religious current 3- Growing feudalization etc.

Features

1. Brahmanic Revivalism:
• As a result of this, the cult of sacrifice was revived.
• Inscriptions amply demonstrate that the Gupta kings and other regional kings performed sacrifices.
1. Bhaktism:
• Bhaktism emerged as a result of assimilation between the Aryan and Non-Aryan elements.
• Bhaktism influenced almost all the contemporary sects.
• For example, the Mahayana sect appeared under Buddhism and Jainism adopted idol worship.
• Likewise, under Brahmanism, Vaishnavism and Shaivism emerged.
• In one sense, Bhaktism corresponded with the feudal structure in society.
• For example, asis the case in Bhaktism, where thedevotees were supposed to totally surrender to an individual God, similarly in the feudal structure, peasants were supposed to totally surrender to their lords.
1. The Theory of Reincarnation, Idol Worship & Temple Cult:
• Throughthetheoryofreincarnation,assimilation between Aryanand Non-Aryan Gods became possible.
• For example, both Aryan and Non-Aryan Gods were included among the 10 reincarnation of Lord Vishnu.
• Likewise, idols were placed in temples and temple cults started during this period. Later, it became the main feature of Hinduism.
• The concept of trinity of gods developed during the Gupta period.
1. Tantrism:
• During this period, we can underline the faint beginning of Tantrism.
• Tantrism is not a separate sect, rather, it emerged as a common element of different sects possibly on account of assimilation between Aryan and tribal elements.
• Some common Tantrism features include
• The importance attached to energy, tantric rituals, yogic/ meditative practices, sexual rites and terrifying deities.
• Goddesses were associated with male Gods as spouses and a concept was being developed that, in order to activate male gods, their association with goddesses was essential.
• Tantrism manifested itself in the form of
• Kapalika, Kalamukha and Natha sub-sects within Shaivism
• Pancharatra developed as a Tantric cult with Vaishnavism.
• Shaktism developed as a tantric cult.
• Likewise, Vajrayana sub-sect (the cult of thunderbolt) appeared under Buddhism
• Even Jainism adopted worship of Yaksha and Yakshini.
• The early medieval period saw further development of Tantric elements.
1. The Development of Concept of the cyclic view of the world:
• According to this view, the Kalpa was divided into Manavantras, Manavantras into Mahayugas and Mahayugas into Yugas such as Satyuga, Kaliyuga, Dwapar and Treta.
1. Development of 6 Materialistic Philosophies:
• During the ancient period, there were a number of ideas, ideologies and schools.
• By the Gupta period, these were crystallised into six schools of materialistic philosophy. These were "Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimansa and Vedanta".

Literature

Secular Literature

The Gupta period witnessed intense activities in the literaryfield. After centuries of evolution and lavish royal patronage during the Gupta period, Sanskrit literature reached a level of classical excellence.

• Among the known Sanskrit poets of the period, Kalidasa is the greatest. He lived in the court of Chandragupta II.
• The Meghadutam, a lyrical poem of little over a hundred graceful stanzas, contains the message from the Yaksha to his wife across the northern mountains.
• The Rituasamhara describes the six seasons in relation to howthe loversreact to the changing landscape with changing seasons. The poems of Kalidasa remain unequalled in their metrical perfection.
• The Raghuvansam speaks of the all-round victories of Rama, which may indirectly refer to some Gupta conquests.
• The Kumarasambhava deals with the courtship of Shiva and Parvati and the birth of their son Skanda.
• His most famous work, the play Abhijnanashakuntalam is based on the story of the union and separation of the king Dushyant with Shakuntala. It remains to be the highest achievement of early Indian literature and stagecraft (drama).
• Several other dramatists flourished during the Gupta Age.
• Shudraka, often supposed to be of royal lineage, wrote the Mrichchhakatika.
• Its plot centres on the love of a poor Brahmana trader Charudatta for the wealthy, beautiful, accomplished and cultured courtesan Vsantesena.
• Vishakadatta is the author of the Mudrarakshasha, which deals with schemes of the shrewd Chanakya.
• The Devichandraguptam, another drama written by him, has survived only in fragments.
• The Sanskrit language was also enriched by the development of grammar and lexicography.
• The Amarakosha compiled by Amarasimha, has remained to be an indispensable lexicon till modern times.
• Sanskrit literature was mainly enjoyed by the upper classes and aristocracy.
• Theuneducatedmassescouldhavehardlyunderstood,muchlessappreciated, the ornate court literature.
• Not surprisingly, the leading male characters of high social status speak polished Sanskrit and those of the lower status and women speak Prakrit in these plays.

Religious Literature

The Gupta period also saw a spurt in the production of religious literature.

• This is clear from the fact that some of the most important of the eighteen Puranas (the Markandey, Brahmanda, Vishnu, Bhagavata and Matsya) were finally compiled during this period.
• These Puranas were originally composed by the bards.
• But, they fell into the hands of the Brahmana compilers up to this period, who often inserted new gods into the narrative and made substantial interpolations.
• The Mahabharata, traditionally attributed to Vyasa, was also finally compiled during this period.
• It was inflated from the original 24000 verses to 1000,000 verses. There is much in common between this epic and the law books.
• Some of the injunctions (injunctions of Manu for instance) occur in identical form in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata.
• It may imply-contrary to the popular view- that this legal text belongs to the Gupta period.
• Several other law books like those of Vishnu, Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana may also have been composed during the Gupta times.
• The Brahmanical world view found in the epics and the Dharmashastras texts is reflected in the various versions of the Panchatantra fables.

Science and Technology Some important works on science were composed during the period.

Aryabhatta, the author of the Aryabhatiya, lived in the 5 th century.

• He had suggested that the earth revolved around the sun and rotates on its own axis.
• Through his efforts, astronomy branched off as a separate discipline from mathematics.
• He was the first to use the decimal system but its invention is not attributed to him.

Varahamihira, who lived in c. 6 th century, wrote several treatises on astronomy and astrology.

• His Brihatsamhita is an encyclopaedic work on architecture, planetary motions, timekeeping, astrology, seasons, agriculture, mathematics, gemology and perfumes etc.
• According to Varahamihira, in some verses, he was merely summarising earlier existing literature on astronomy and temple architecture.
• The chapters of the Brihatsamhita were quoted by Al Beruni.
• His Panchasiddhantika deals with five astronomical systems (siddhanta);
• Twoofthesehaveacloseconnectionwith the Greekknowledgeonastronomy.
• The Laghu Jataka and Brihad Jataka, both written by him, are works on horoscopy. Art and Architecture The basic inspiration behind the Gupta art was Brahmanism.
• Temple construction started during this period. Simultaneously, Buddhist influence continued during this period.
• Ajanta and Ellora caves reflect Buddhist influence. Different art forms viz. paintings, sculpture etc. flourished during this period and some of them achieved a classical standard.
• The term 'classical standard' can't be used in the context of temple architecture as temple construction was in its nascent phase at this point and it attained the classical standard only during the Rajput period.

Architecture

Temple construction became the main form of architecture during this period.

Most of the Gupta temples were examples of 'Free standing Temples' asopposed to rock cut cave temples.

The stone temples include the

• Kankali Devi temple at Tigawa (Katni district, MP),
• Shiva temples at Bhumara (Satna district, MP) and Khoh (Satna),
• Parvati temple of Nachna Kuthara (Panna district, MP),
• Dashavatara temple of Deogarh (Lalitpur district, UP),
• Dah Parbatia (Tezpur, Assam),
• Buddhist shrines at Sanchi and a Buddhist temple at Bodh Gaya. Then, there are brick temples of
• Bhitargaon (Kanpur),
• Laxman temple at Sirpur (Mahsamund district, Chhattisgarh) and
• Paharpur (Rajshahi, Bangladesh). Apart from the free standing temples, we find the examples of rock cut temples as well i.e.
• Udayagirirockcuttemples(near Vidisha)associatedwith Vishnu(Varahaavatarin the rock cave number 5)
• Shiva and Shakti, Buddhist temples of Ellora. When we observe the features of temple construction during the Gupta period, we notice that the Gupta architecture prepared the basis of Nagara style of architecture.
• The temples were built on raised platforms and there were stairs from all the sides.
• The Sanctum Santorum (Garbha Griha-the chamber where the main deity is consecrated) was built in the centre.
• The idol of the main god was placed in the centre while the idols of subordinate gods were put up on the four sides of the temple.
• Theinnerwallsofthetempleswereplainbuttheexteriorwallswereornatelycarved.
• The earlier temples had flat roofs but the Dashavatara temple of Deogarh had a 'Shikhara'.
• This is true for the Bhitargaon temple also. We find an example of the Buddhist architecture during this period i.e.

Dhamekh stupa situated near Varanasi.

• Unlike other stupas, which were semi-spherical in shape, Dhamekh stupa was cylindrical in shape.

During this period Buddhist architecture continued in the form of cave rock cut architecture viz. Ajanta (Aurangabad), Ellora (Aurangabad), Bhaja/ Karley (Pune) Bagh (Dhar district, MP)

etc.

• Many Buddhist Chaityas, Viharas and stupas were built during this period including thoseat Jaulian(near Taxila),Charssada(near Mardan,Khyber Pakhtunkhwaprovince,

Pakistan) etc.

The Gupta temples can be divided into following styles:

1. Flat-roofed,squaretemple, a shallowpillaredporch withthe entire structure built on a low

platform.

• E.g. Temple no. 17 at Sanchi, Vishnu and Varaha temple at Eran.
1. Flat-roofed, square temple with a covered ambulatory around the sanctum which was

preceded by a pillared porch.

• Sometimes the temple had a second floor.
• Temple was built on a raised platform
• E.g. Parvati temple at Nachana Kuthara, Shiva temple at Bhumara.
1. A low sikhara (tower) replaced the flat roof.
• Panchayatan style was introduced in which there are four subsidiary shrines along with the shrine of the main deity.
• The main shrine is square but it has an elongated Mandap in front of it with four subsidiary shrines in its four corners, thus, giving the temple an overall rectangular shape.
• E.g. Dashavatara temple at Deogarh, Brick temple at Bhitargaon, Durga temple at Aihole.
1. Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and a barrel-vaulted roof above.
• E.g. Ter temple (Sholapur).
1. Circular temple with shallow rectangular projections at the four cardinal faces.
• E.g. Maniyar Math (Bihar)

Sculpture

Earlier Gandhara and Mathura schools of sculpture had developed.

• In course of time, both combined some of their elements and developed into the Sarnath School of sculpture during the Gupta period.
• Wheneverweobserve the Guptasculptures,itshowsmoreconfidenceandperfection.
• The face of the statue reflects a cool and calm posture.
• The sculptures have a perceptible aura.
• While the sculptures during the Kushana period were often naked, Gupta sculpture is properly covered.
• Apart from stone sculptures, we have metal sculptures as well e.g. a bronze sculpture of Buddha was unearthed from Sultanganj (Bihar).
• It is a great piece of art. That's why Gupta sculpture is considered to have reached classical standard.

Paintings

Whenever we talk about the Gupta paintings, we look towards Ajanta which presents a treasure of paintings from the early centuries of the Common Era to the early medieval age.

• All the dynasties of this period, such as Satvahanas, Vakatakas, Guptas and Chalukyas contributed to the development of Ajanta paintings.
• Ajanta paintings were basically associated with Buddhism.
• In cave no. 16, we find a rare painting of a dying princess whose family membersarestandingbesideherandsheisdyingduetothepainofseparation from her husband.
• Cave no. 17 is known as 'Chitrasala'. In this cave, we find some rare paintings.
• In one of the paintings Yashodhara, wife of Buddha, has been shown as submitting her only son Rahul to Buddha.
• It creates charged emotional moments.
• Apart from Ajanta, cave paintings are visible at Bagh.
• There are 9 caves near Bagh, which have similar design but they are simpler.
• Paintings have practically disappeared at Bagh.
• Up to the Gupta period, paintings had reached a stage of excellence.
• Thus, it was supposed to have achieved classical standard.

Other Forms of art

• The Kama Sutraof Vatsyayanagivesahinttowardsotherformsofarti.e.music,dance, play etc.
• Vatsayana informs us that girls were given training in dance and music in towns.
• Likewise, theatres used to organise plays in towns.
• Natyashastra is a text on the performing arts.
• The subjects covered by the treatise include composition of plays, structure of a play and the construction of a stage to host it, genres of acting, body movements, makeup and costumes, role and goals of an art director, the musical scales, musical instruments and the integration of music with art performance.

Evaluation of Gupta Period as 'Golden Age'

The term Golden Age denotes a phase of upsurge. This term is frequently applied to certain ages in world history.

• Forexample,thistermhasbeenappliedinthecontextof Periclean Athens(c.400 BCE) and the England of Elizabeth in the 16 th century.
• Likewise,thistermwasappliedtocertainphasesof Indianhistory;includingthe Gupta Age.
• Indianhistorianswho wrote duringthe phase of nationalstruggle against colonial rule termed the Gupta Age as the 'Golden Age'.
• But,inthelightofrecenthistoriography,whichshiftedfromthehistoryofelite to the history of masses, this term has been challenged. The Gupta period was supposed to be Golden Age on following grounds:
1. Revival of an empire/ political unification after the Mauryas:
• The Gupta Empire was initially presumed to be centralised.
1. Economic prosperity.
• (a) Condition of crafts.
• (b) Condition of trade and commerce.
• (c) Fa-Hein mentions the economic prosperity of Madhya Desha.
• (d) Guptas kings issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India.
1. Religious tolerance:
• Although the Gupta kings were Vaishanava in their religious conviction, they gave patronage to other sects as well.
• The chief minister of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Virasena was a Shaivite while his military commander Amar Kardawa was a Buddhist.
• Kumaragupta I and Budhagupta built monasteries at Nalanda.
1. Development of Art & Literature:
• It was under the Guptas that literature and art reached a classical standard.
• The scholars like Harisena, Vatsvatti, Vasu, Amar Singh, Kalidas etc. got patronage under the Guptas.
• Likewise, temple construction started for the first time during this period. It prepared the base for the Nagara style of architecture.
• Sarnath School of sculpture, paintings of Ajanta and Bagh, all stood as the monument of cultural achievements under Guptas,
1. Development of Science & Technology:
• Achievements of Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, iron pillar of Mehrauli at Delhi etc. It was believed that all these achievements were based on economic growth and social integration.

Limitations

But, there is another side of the picture and we should be a bit cautious while using the term 'Golden Age'.

• Because for the common people, the term Golden Age hardly had any relevance.
• Whatever economic prosperity we witnessed was at the elite level.
• Among the common people, we find frequent evidence of forced labour.
• Even Varna division crystallised further.
• Furthermore, one can underline a relative decline in the condition of women as well.
• Likewise, the condition of untouchables became worse as attested by Fahian.
• Wecanclearlyseegrowingsignsoffeudalizationofeconomyandpolityinthis period.
• In fact, even trade declined to some extent. So, although this period should be credited for the unparalleled production of cultural products, still the term 'golden age' does not appear to be relevant.

Disintegration of Gupta Empire

Following are some of the factors that contribute towards the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.

1. Huna Invasions:

Fromthetimeof Kumaragupta I(successorof Chandra Gupta II),the North-Westbordershad been continuously threatened by the Hunas.

It was a Central Asian (roughly area around Oxus valley) tribe which was successfully moving in different directions.

It was establishing pockets of Huna rule in northern and western India.

But, their attacks were repulsed during this period by prince Skandagupta.

Huna invasion was repulsed even during the reign of Skandagupta.

• But these attacks must have caused political convulsions.

However, towards the end of the 5 th century CE and the beginning of 6 th century, the Huna chief Toramana was able to establish his authority over a large part of western India and around Eran in central India.

• Inscriptions suggest that his rule extended over parts of Kashmir, Punjab, UP and Rajasthan.
• An 8 th century Jain text, Kuvalayamal, mentions that Toramana adopted Jainism. Maihirakula, his son, further extended this dominion. Mihirkula's inscription has been found at Gwalior.
• According to Xuanzang, his capital was at Sakala (Sialkot).
• Rajtarangini describes the cruelty of Mihirakula and exaggerates his conquest. Thus, the Huna attacks were a major blow to the Gupta authority particularly in northern and western regions of the empire.
• Eventually, Mihirakula was defeated at the hands of Narasimhagupta (a later Gupta ruler), Yashodharman of Malwa and Maukharis of Kannauj.
1. Administrative Weaknesses:

The Guptas adopted the policy to restore the authority of local chiefs or kings in the conquered areas.

• Thiscreatedaproblem for almost every Gupta Kingwhohadtoreinforcehisauthority over recalcitrant subordinates.
• The constant military campaigns were a burden on the state treasury.
• Towardstheendof the 5th century CEandbeginningof 6th century CE, manyregional powers reasserted their authority taking advantage of the weak Gupta emperors.
• In due course of time they declared their independence.
• Possibly,thecompetition from Vakataksandriseof the Yashodharmanof Malwawere also factors behind the decline of Guptas.
1. There were many other reasons which contributed to the decline of Guptas.
• For example, it has been argued that the Guptas issued land grants to the Brahmana donees and in this process surrendered the revenue and resources administrative rights in favour of the donees.
• But, inscriptions do not support the view that the royal Guptas were involved in giving royal land grants on a large scale, but Vakatakas certainly were.
• Further, it is believed that the Samanta system in which the Samantas (minor rulers), who ruled as the subordinates, made the Gupta administrative structure loose.
• There is a diversity of opinion as to how the system originated and regarding the details of the system, but the presence of many Samantas within the empire does show that they wielded power almost independently of the Gupta authority.
• There is no doubt that division within the imperial family, concentration of power in the hands of local chiefs or governors, loose administrative structure of the empire etc. contributed towards the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.