“Peace is not only better than war, but infinitely more arduous.”

• George Bernard Shaw

It was a war of ideologies this war was fought between the capitalist bloc headed by USA and the communist bloc headed by Soviet Union during 1945-1991. However, it war was not an open military conflict. Rather, it was a psychological or diplomatic war, which involved many local and proxy conflicts across the globe, whose objective was to check the influence of one bloc by the other. It was characterized by continued hostility, and efforts to weakenorunderminetheenemybyeverymeansotherthandirect military conflict.

The term Cold War was coined by British writer George Orwell in

1. It was popularized in geopolitical and strategic sense by Bernard Baruch, the advisor to

American president Truman in 1947.

Dimensions

• Silent warfare: The parties behave friendly in public, but privately they make every possible effort to destroy each other.
• Geopolitical and strategic conflict: Both the parties promote their interest at the cost of other to have an upper hand.
• Psychological warfare: The parties test the mental resolve of each other through arms race, military exercise and by indulging in pressure tactics.
• "Let us not be deceived; we are today in the midst of a Cold War. Our enemies are to be found abroad and at home. Let us never forget this: Our unrest is the heart of their success." - Bernard Baruch
• War of diplomats and secret services: The role of regular military forces in limited.
• Thediplomatsfightinconferencesbytargetingtheopponentandbyisolatingthem in international plat form. They use their skills to form alliances to surround the opponent.
• The secret services undertake covert operations to weaken the opponent.
• Propaganda War:
• Mass media is used as a weapon to attack the prestige of opponent.
• Mass media is used to convince everybody about the virtues of the ideas represented by one nation or block.
• Proxy War:
• USA and USSR could not afford to target each other directly because of MAD (Mutually afford Destruction)
• There were low-intensity conflicts and undeclared local wars throughout the world.
• Every arena of human life becomes a battlefield: It is fundamentally different from traditional warfare. It is fought in sports ground, cultural events, scientific inventions and in diplomatic conferences.

According to Eric Hobsbawm, it should be better known as WWIII. Fred Halliday has argued that the Cold War was a "global civil war" in which both sides sought to impose their vision of world order on the rest of the planet.

The background of the cold war (A) Interwar distrust

• The larger background responsible for commencement of Cold War can be traced to Russian revolution of 1917.
• This Russian communist regime was not recognized by western capitalist nations till 1933.
• The ideological difference between the two models was already there. These differences continued to intensify with the passage of time.
• In the civil war after the birth of USSR, the western powers sent armed forces to support the Whites, which created mutual distrust.
• This distrust further increased as Russia was not invited to Paris Peace Conference.
• The instances like Spanish civil war and Munich Agreement (Appeasement) only confirmed Lenin's suspicion that western democracies would prefer Fascism over

cooperation with communism. Thus, he signed no-aggression pact with Germany. This was seen as stab-in-the-back by the western democracies.

(B) During the War Notwithstanding mutual distrust, there was still cooperation between the western democracies and communist Russia during the WW 2.

• The issue of opening of second military front during the Second World War - against Nazi invasion.

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• The western front was opened in (June 1944), much after the battle of Stalingrad (July 1942). Stalin felt that it is a deliberate delay to ensure Russia is devastated.
• The issue of surrendering of Italy (Sept 1943) also created distrust between the two.
• Britain and the USA chose to talk to Italy separately. But the USSR was not invited to this talk.

(C) Post War Developments Although many historians sought to trace the origin of the Cold War in 1947 when the Bolshevik revolution took place, the phenomenon surfaced in earnest only after the Second World War. Friends during the Second World War didn't remain together at the end of the war as fresh points of conflict appeared among them:

(i) Western Theatre: East Europe and Germany

• In the last phase, there was a virtual competition to occupy ever larger part of Germany between the two sides.

▪ The occupation of East European territories by the Soviet forces during March 1944 - Feb 1945 terrified the western capitalist nations The western capitalist nations took this soviet move as an act of expansionism.

▪ Theinstallationofcommunistgovernmentin Polandin 1945 furtherintensified the ideological difference. Western nations realized that Communist expansion has to be countered to save capitalist world.

• October 1944 - Having been suspicious of Russian movement, Churchill signed a secret

“percentage agreement" with USSR.”

▪ According to this agreement, Russian occupied region had to be divided between capitalist and communist spheres of influence.

• Meanwhile there were Yalta (Feb 45) and Potsdam(Aug 45) conferences. Differences over peace treaties also intensified the hostility.

▪ USSR insisted that harsh treaties shall be imposed on Germany, and it be made to pay for the destruction caused by German Forces.

▪ The Western capitalist nations did not want to repeat the mistakes of 1919-20.

They wanted a peace based on equality and mutual respect, so that possibility of another was in future could be eliminated.

Yalta (Feb 1945) Potsdam (Aug 1945)

Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin Truman, Churchill/Atlee, Stalin Germany

• Aim was to secure the unconditional surrender of

Germany, destroy German militarism and Nazism and to ensure that Germany would never again be able to disturb the peace of the world.

• Germany would be divided into occupied zones administered by

U.S., British, French, and Soviet forces - 4 operational zones.

• "five Ds": Demilitarization, denazification, democratization, decentralization, and deindustrialization.
• The central focus of the Potsdam

Conference was the future of Germany. Allies could not reach a conclusion regarding the future of Germany. For example, they could not decide when the four zones of Germany would be allowed to join to form a state.

• Each Allied power was to seize reparations from its own

occupation zones, although the Soviet Unionwaspermitted 10-15 percent of the industrial equipmentinthewesternzonesof Germany in exchange for agricultural and other natural products from its zone.

• Berlin, Vienna, and Austria were also each divided into four occupation zones.

East Europe

• To assist the countries of Europe to establish post-war democratic institutions, the Allies formulated a 'Declaration on Liberated Europe'.

The declaration pledged that "the earliest possible establishment through free elections governments responsiveto the will of the people".

• Roosevelt tried to persuade Stalin to conduct the elections in occupied regions of East Europe.

Stalin promised yes but he didn't act.

• The governments of Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria were alreadycontrolledbycommunists.
• Truman created pressurized Stalin to conduct elections in East

Europe, but Stalin was adamant in refusing to let the Allies interfere in eastern Europe.

(ii) Eastern Theatre: Japan

• Although Germany had surrendered, Japan had not.
• Now Russia also tried to occupy Japan from north, but USA had already entered there and apart from a few islands, nothing much was allowed.
• Dropping of atomic bombs on Japan in Aug 1945 brought the differences in open.
• Stalin was informed only at the last moment of the existence of such weapon.

▪ Stalin expected that, being a coalition partner, USSR had every right to be consulted before taking such a major step like bombardment of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. But the government of Truman kept this matter secret and did not share it with any partner.

• The bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was totally unnecessary to bring Japan to surrender which was already underway.

▪ Still, the USA took such a harsh step - and everyone was surprised. Stalin felt that Japan was a mere scape goat. He felt that although the bomb was fell in Japan, but the real target of these bombs were Soviet ambitions.

• The devastation caused by these nuclear weapons tilted thestrategic balance in favour of capitalist world. Because of this, the war time friendship came to an end with the end of war itself. The friends in war could not remain friends in peace.

Comprehensive causes behind the cold war

• Itwastheproductofahistoricalsituation.Infact,inhistory,therewasaveryshort period of co-operation but a long period of conflict.
• The US and the USSR emerged as the two most powerful nations of the world after the Second World War. Thee tried to fill up the power vacuum that emerged after the WWII.
• The ideological conflict between Soviet Russia & the USA became a major point of difference between the two.
• Mutual distrust
• The main basis of the contradiction between the two powers was that the mutual distrust. US was suspicious about the Soviet Union's aims while Soviet Union was suspicious about US policies.
• Russia had bitter memories to be invaded, from both the fronts, western as well as eastern. Thus, it installed the communist governments in the Eastern European countries to create strategic depth.
• This mutual distrust gradually gave way to such tension in world politics that it influenced the whole world.

Phases of Cold War First Phase (1946-62): Confrontation During this phase, the hostilities between capitalist and communist blocs came out in open, in front of the world.

• In Feb 1946, in an election speech in Moscow, Joseph Stalin declared that capitalism and communism are poles apart.
• As long as capitalism is there, the enmity will go on. Thus, he claimed that the war was inevitable and blamed it on capitalism.
• He askedfor acommunist revolutionall overthe world. USSR announced open support to the communists for overthrowing the capitalist government.
• The extremely offensive speech terrified the western world.
• In March 1946, ex-PM Churchill gave a speech at the University of Fulton, Missouri, in the US in which he stated that 'from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the continent.'
• This speech further intensified the hostilities between capitalism and communism. Truman Doctrine (March 1947)
• This doctrine was announced by President Harry S. Trueman.
• It marked the abandonment of traditional policy of isolation & USA assumed the responsibility of leading the capitalist world.
• Greek Civil War: In 1946, a civil war commenced in Greece when the Communists tried of overthrow the democratically elected capitalist government. Britain supported the democrats while the communists were supported by Soviet Union.

However, the cost of such intervention was too high for Britain.

• As Britain withdrew from Greece, the security of Greece and that of Turkey became a big issue and that fell on the head of USA. This responsibility was announced by government as Truman Doctrine.
• Truman told the Congress 'Greece must have assistance if it is to become a self- supporting' and respecting democracy... I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free people.'
• $450 million was sanctioned by the Congress for maintaining US naval force in the Mediterranean Sea. Greece began to receive huge number of arms and other supplies and Turkey received aid amounting to 60 million dollars.
• Due to US aid, the communists in Greece were defeated by 1949. The same thing happened in the case of Turkey.
• The announcement of Truman Doctrine greatly intensified by cold war.
• The Truman doctrine initiated the phase of the US policy of containment of communism across the world. Thus, began the Cold War.
• The policy of the US Government was to intervene militarily and economically in the civil wars against the communists.
• This policy of containment continued to be followed in other parts of the world. Marshall Plan and Molotov Plan (June 1947)
• Marshall Plan was formulated by George Marshall, the American secretary of state, to counter the spread of communism. It was officially known as European Recovery Plan.
• It was an economic extension of the Truman Doctrine. It was based on the belief that communism was less likely to thrive in prosperous society.
• Marshall said in Harvard University speech in June 1947, "The truth of the matter is that Europe's requirements for the next three or four years of foreign food and

otheressentialproducts--principally from America--aresomuchgreaterthanher present ability to pay, that she must have substantial additional help or face economic, social and physical deterioration of a very grave character. It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health in the world without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace."

• Under this plan a huge amount of 13,000 million dollars was to be extended to euro nations over a period of 4 years. (aid)
• Molotov plan by USSR.
• Althoughthe Marshallaidwasforentire Europe,the East Europeancountries were not allowed to receive it by Soviet Union.

▪ Itbelieved thatthe Marshall Plan wasan attemptto weaken Sovietinterest in their satellite states by making beneficiary countries economically dependent on the United States. He termed it 'dollar imperialism'.

▪ The Soviet Union also criticized the Marshall Plan because it undermined the importance of the United Nations.

• Thus, the Eastern Europe continued to face serious economic crisis whereas the countries of western Europe recovered quickly. This contrast further was intensified by the cold war.
• Soviet foreign minister Molotov proposed the Soviet-sponsored economic grouping of bilateral trade agreements (Molotov Plan) which was eventually expanded to become the COMECON.

Further Developments

• Imposition of a communist government in Czechoslovakia by USSR in Feb 1948
• Formation of 'Brussels Pact' by western countries in March 1948. Berlin Blockade (June 1948 - May 1949)
• Western nations invested huge amount in their parts of Berlin whereas USSR tried to extract as much as possible from soviet controlled Berlin as well as Germany.
• Thus, an island of prosperity existed in Soviet controlled Germany. It was causing day to day humiliation to Soviet and puncturing their propaganda of pro people communism and anti-people capitalism.
• In March 1948 the Allied powers decided to unite their different occupation zones of Germany into a single economic unit. There was also an introduction of a new deutsche

mark in West Berlin (as throughout West Germany). All of these was regarded as a violation of agreements by the USSR.

• To stop this embarrassment, Berlin blockade was imposed by Soviet Union.
• In June 1948, Soviet Union blocked the routes connecting American, British and French controlled Germany with Parts of Germany.
• Soviet leadership was under the impression that the capitalist nations will abandon their Berlin when there will be no connectivity.
• However,
• The western nations maintained connecting through airlift and ensures supply of food and other basic needs.
• High tensions
• Soviet army of occupation in East Germany increased to 40 divisions, against 8 in the Allied sectors. In return, U.S. sent many strategic bombers to reinforce Britain. Tension remained high, but war did not break out.
• To counter Soviet Union through military force, NATO was formed in April 1949 by western capitalist nations.
• The blockade lasted for 324 days. Finally, in May 1949 the Berlin blockade was lifted by Soviet Union. But this incidence had greatly intensified Cold war.

More developments tilted the balance in favour of USSR.

• USSR became Nuclear Power (Sept 1949).
• Soviet Union now emerged as nuclear power, which tilted the strategic balance in favour of USSR.
• Chinse Communist Revolution (Oct 1949)
• In Oct 1949, China emerged as a communist nation.
• In Feb 1950 the Sino-Russian Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed through which China joined soviet bloc. Korean War (1950-53)
• In 1950, Korean War commenced which continued for three years. Now, the hostilities reached its peak.

The Thaw (1953-1962)

During this phase, a significant improvement was witnessed in the relations between the two blocks.

• Causes:
• Death of Soviet president Joseph Stalin (1953) ▪ Stalin was extremely aggressive. He was a symbol of soviet expansionism.

When he was no more the fear of soviet expansion got reduced.

▪ Nikita Khrushchev's policies

• De-Stalinization
• Peaceful coexistence with other nations.
• Exposure of American senator Joseph Mcarthy ▪ American senator published many fabricated reports to intensify fear of communism among the people.

▪ It was a period of political persecution and repression of left-wing people.

It also involved spreading fear of Soviet espionage and communist influence on American institutions.

▪ Whenhewasinvestigated,allhisreportsandclaimswerefoundtobefalse, Americans took sigh of relief.

• This improvement in IR reflected in:
• End of Korean war (1953)
• End of hostilities in Vietnam (1954)
• Recognition of Austria as an independent sovereign state (1955)
• Removal of Soviet military bases from Finland (1955)
• However, the feeling of Thaw represented only a partial picture because at the same time both the blocs were busy in strengthening themselves.
• In 1954, SEATO was established by USA, Australia, NZ, Pakistan, Philippines, and Thailand.
• In 1955, Warsaw Pact was signed by Soviet Union with its friendly state to counter

Nato.

• Developments in Middle East
• Baghdad Pact (1955) was signed between Turkey, Iraq, Great Britain, Pakistan and Iran to prevent communist incursions and foster peace in the Middle East. It was renamed as CENTO in 1959.
• In 1956, the Second Arab War broke out due to Suez Canal Crisis.
• In 1957, USA announced the Eisenhower Doctrine. Accordingly, a Middle Eastern country could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression.
• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
• Itcarriedthehostilitytoitspeak.Itappearedasif full-fledgedwarwouldbreakout anytime and MAD (Mutually assured Destruction) will come into operation.
• Thus, super-powers started to think about creating the communication channel between the two blocs, so that any confusion wouldn't escalate into a devastating war.

Spread of Cold War across the world

• The Cold War, initially confined to Western Europe untilthe late 1940 s, expanded to Asia, Africa, and Latin America from the 1950 s onward.
• Both the USA and USSR recognized that access to global resources would determine their influence in this geopolitical rivalry. Consequently, both superpowers developed extensive strategies to expand their reach in these regions.
• Bythistime,theprocessofdecolonizationwasalreadyunderway,whichledtothe emergence of many new nations. Most of these nations quickly were caught up in the bloc politics of Cold War.
• The USA decided to take following steps to check expansion of Communist ideas:
• Military bases: e.g. Turkey, Pakistan, Japan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia
• Forming military blocks: Baghdad Pact in West Asia (1955), SEATO (Southeast Asia treaty organization, 1954) etc.
• Aggressivedoctrines:Dominotheory(Southeast Asia),Eisenhower Doctrine (West Asia), revived the Munro doctrine (Latin America).
• On the other hand, even the USSR was ready to give a reply to capitalist power.
• It supported communist parties across the world.
• Support to decolonization movement across the world
• Putting its ideological compulsion aside, USSR developed an alliance and friendship with non-communist countries.
• More strategies:
• Economic Aid, Media propaganda, Cultural diplomacy, Education and scholarly exchanges like Fulbright Program
• Both USA and USSR supplied arms and military equipment as well as funding to allied and sympathetic nations.
• Both engaged in covert operationsto influence and, at times, topple governments aligned with the opposing superpower. It often led to engineering coup and the installation of puppet governments.

▪ USSR: Czechoslovakia (1948), Hungary (1956), Afghanistan (1970 s) etc ▪ USA: Iran (1953), Chile (1973) etc

Korean Crisis (1950-53)

Between 1910 and 1945, the Japanese empire annexed and occupied the Korean peninsula.

The Eulsa Treaty, also known as the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1905, made the Korean peninsula a protectorate of Japan, that five years later, was formally annexed by Japan. The Korean peninsula gained independence from Japan after a 35-year struggle in 1945.

Causes of the crisis

• The division of Korea into two zones along the 38 th parallel was an after-effect of the two world wars.
• At the end of the Second World War, the Allies agreed that Soviet forces would accept the surrender of Japanese troops in Korea north of the 38 th degree of parallel, while American troops would accept the Japanese surrender south of that line.
• The United Nations wanted free elections for the whole country. However, the artificial division of Korea continued.
• Elections were held in the south under the supervision of the United Nations, and the independent South Korea (Ro K) was set up with Seoul as the capital, in August 1948.
• Russians created North Korea under the communist governmentof Kim Il Sung,withitscapitalat Pyongyang,theverynext month.
• In 1949 Russian and American troops were withdrawn, leaving a potentially dangerous situation. However, most Koreans bitterly resented the artificial division of their country by outsiders, but both leaders claimed the right to rule the whole country.
• In 1950, the North Korean troops, without warning, invaded South Korea with Chinese backing and with the support of Russian arms.
• Truman held Stalin responsible for the invasion of South Korea by North Korea.
• The policy of the United States therefore changed decisively. Instead of just economic help and promises of support, Truman decided it was essential for the West to take a stand, by supporting South Korea.
• American troops were ordered to proceed from Japan to Korea even before the UN had decided what action to take.
• Role of UN
• The UN Security Councilurged North Korea to withdraw itstroops. When ignored, member states were asked to aid South Korea.
• Heeding the call of the UN, the USA + 14 countries sent troops, though the vast majority were Americans. All forces were under the command of American General Macarthur

(joint command) with an objective to liberate South Korea.

• By the end of September, UN troops had entered Seoul and cleared the south of communists.
• The joint command after liberating South Korea encroached the line and tried to conquer North Korea.
• Instead of calling for a cease-fire now that the original UN objective had been achieved,Trumanorderedaninvasionof North Korea,aimingto unite the country and hold free elections.
• Then the Chinese carried a counter-invasion on joint command.
• Chou En-lai, the Chinese foreign minister, had cautioned against UN troops entering North Korea, but this warning was disregarded.
• By the end of October 1950, UN forces had taken Pyongyang, claimed two-thirds of North Korea.
• China launched a significant counter-offensive. By mid-January 1951, 2-lakh strong Chineseforcessucceededinpushing UNtroopsoutof North Korea,crossing the 38 th parallel, and recapturing Seoul.
• In June, UN troops cleared the communists out of South Korea again and fortified the frontier.
• After abrief renewal of hostilities, an armistice was concluded in July 1953 at Panmunjom with an

agreement that the frontier between North and South Korea should be roughly along the 38 th parallel line.

Impact

Korean crisis internationalised the cold war. In general, American estimation, Korean crisis established aggressive posture of communist bloc. Then the USA became more aggressive and chalked out multi-pronged strategies to pursue the policy of containment against communism even outside of Europe.

It brought a new dimension to the Cold War. American relations were permanently strained with China as well as with Russia. Familiar pattern of both sides trying to build up alliances appeared in Asia as well as Europe.

• China
• Supported Indo-Chinese communists in struggle for independence from France.
• Offered friendship and aid to under-developed Third World countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
• Signed 'peaceful co-existence' agreements with India and Burma.
• Meanwhile the Americans tried to encircle China with bases.
• In 1951 defensive agreements were signed with Australia and New Zealand (ANZUS Pact)
• In 1954 these three states together with Britain and France set up the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).

Suez Canal Crisis (1956)

• Background
• Nahas pasha was the most prominent

Egyptian ruler who led Egyptian struggle against British rule between the interwar years. Asaresultofpressurebuiltby Egyptian national movement, Treaty of London was signed between Britain and Egypt in 1936.

• Before the treaty of London could be implemented WWII broke out. Instead of withdrawal of British forces from Egypt, more British forces landed on Egyptian soil.
• With the end of WWII in 1945 the Egyptian once again started demanding the withdrawal of British forces & recognition of Egyptian independence.
• When British government refused to take the Egyptian demands seriously, a revolutionbroke outin Egypt in 1952.Thesultanate wasoverthrown. King Farouk was forced to abdicate and subsequently went into exile. Now, General Muhammad Naguib became the president for a short while (1952-54).

▪ This new Prez was expected to demand immediate withdrawal of forces from Egyptian soil.

• When he failed to take any strong measures, he was overthrown by Gamal Abdul Nasser through a revolution in 1954.
• Nasser had developed a very strong anti-colonial approach.
• Britain initiated the formation of the Baghdad Pact in 1955.
• Western block under Britain expected Egypt to fall in line with its foreign policy and with this purpose economic assistance for Aswan dam was announced.
• But Nasser did notfollow the line and extended recognition to communist China. So, in reaction, Britain withheld the amount.
• Nasser demanded immediate withdrawal of British and French forces. When his demandwasnotaccepted,he announced nationalizationof Suez Canal on 20 July 1956.
• This decision triggered a war famously known as Second Arab war. In this war Britain, French, Israel was on one side and Egypt was alone. The Egyptian forces were defeated.
• The Egyptian issue was raised in UNO, but it was vetoed out by Britain & France in UNSC. At this UNGA adopted a resolution with 64:5 votes.
• This resolution did not have any legal weight, but its moral weight was immense. This pressure compelled Britain & France to withdraw their Force from Egypt & Egypt immerged as independent & sovereign nation.
• Implications:
• The Suez Crisisendedina militaryvictoryfortheaggressors butanoverwhelming political victory for Egypt, which kept control over the canal, which was shut for more than six months due to the conflict.
• The withdrawal of British forces from Egypt symbolize decline of British as world power. Britain could not maintain its ownership over Suez canal. The loss of Suez canal carried the British Prestige to its lowest point.
• This was also a pivotal moment in the Cold War, with Soviet threats of intervention key to stopping the allied aggression against Egypt.
• After the decline of British power in west Asia, a vacuum was created and that was filled by the USA. Vietnam War (1954-1973)
• Vietnam was an independent country till 1859. French captured it gradually from 1859 to 1885 and Vietnam became a French colony.
• Like other parts of Asia nationalism emerged in Vietnam as well. The Vietnam nationalist was led by Ho chi Minh Vietnam

was the name of his movement. It was more popular in north Vietnam because French HQ was in south Vietnam at Saigon.

• With the entry of Japan in WWII, the face of Vietnam got transformed because it was captured by Japanese forces.
• When the WW 2 started, France was conquered by Germany and Vietnam was swiftly occupied by Japan soon thereafter. The French colonial rulers ran away by leaving the local Vietnamese at the mercy of Japanese forces.
• Japanese exploited Vietnam ruthlessly. In 1945 a massive famine struck Vietnam killing more than 2 million people. These sufferings intensified national struggle in Vietnam.
• Withthedroppingofnuclear bombs Japansurrendered in 1945. It appeared asif Vietnam would gain independence.
• Civil War (1946-54)
• Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam as independent nation with Communist government and Hanoi as capital.
• However,hisdreamgotshattered when Frenchreturnedin 1946 tore-occupyand restart their colonial rule in Vietnam. France rushed in and captured the southern part and installed a Bourgeoise government under Bao Dai.
• Then civil war broke out in Vietnam (1945-54).
• Since the Cold War tensions had already started, it became a part of it. US and

Britain supported France to contain communism while USSR and China (after 1949)supported Ho Chi Minh.Thus,the war continued against the backdrop of an intense Cold War. In the battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954), France was defeated.

• Geneva Accords (1954)
• In July 1954 Geneva Peace accord was signed through which France withdrew.
• Asatemporaryarrangement,Vietnamwaspartitionedalong 17 th parallel.Thiswas supposed to be for 300 days after which free elections are to be held to decide future of Vietnam.
• French left Vietnam by handling over political authority to Vietnam Emperor Bao Dei.
• However, due to American pressure, plebiscite was postponed. USA was terrified by possibility of communist regime in Vietnam.
• USA supported PM of South Vietnam Ngo Dinh Diem in fight with North Vietnam. When south Vietnam government could not stand against Vietnam and Vietcong USA entered the war directly. The USA sent its army to crush the movement.
• In 1965 there were 5 lakh American soldiers on ground in Vietnam.
• Growing opposition to the war in the United States led to bitter divisions among the Americans.President Richard Nixon orderedthewithdrawalof U.S.forces in 1973.Having fought for almost two decades in Vietnam, under four different presidents, the USA left Vietnam.
• As per Paris Peace, Vietnamese independence was recognized by all.
• In 1975, communist forces seized control of Saigon, ending the Vietnam War, and the country was unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam the following year. It ended the

30 year war.

Impact

• It proved a waterloo for the USA as it could not prevent the reunification of Vietnam even after sacrificing 58000 soldiers.
• It proved the popular nature of the Asian variant of communism which was different from the European variant.

13 Days' Standoff: Cuba Missile Crisis (1963)

Causes

• A guerilla leader, Fidel Castro, captured the power in Cuba and started to resist American imperialism.
• When Fidel Castrotookoverthepowerfromthediscrediteddictator Batistaatthe beginning of 1959, he was far from admitting that he was a communist. However,

he fiercely followed anti-American policy in Cuba. He embarked on a policy of increasing his economic links with the Soviet Union and with the Soviet bloc in general. This put a severe strain on his relations with the United States.

• America couldn't tolerate this sort of activism. When the USA tried to crush his government in the botched-up Bay of Pigs invasion (1961)
• US-backed Cuban counterrevolutionaries attempted to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime in the country and establish a non-communist government friendly to the US.
• Castro now declared that he was now a Marxist, Cuba a socialist state and developed intimate relations with the Soviet Union.
• An agreement was made between the two, and by July 1962, a number of clandestine missile launch facilities began to be constructed in Cuba.
• The 13-day Cuban missile crisis, when President Kennedy received a report that Sovietmissilesiteshadbeenidentifiedon the island.
• In spite of the pressure from the military advisers to launch air strikes

against the missile bases in Cuba, Kennedy began a encircling of Cuba to keep out 25 Russian ships, which were bringing missiles to Cuba. (Naval Quarantine of Cuba).USdestroyersandsubmarineswereplacedaround Cubainordertoprevent military supplies being brought to the island.

• Further, Kennedy demanded the dismantling of the missile sites and the removal of those missiles already in Cuba.
• However, the USSR initiated installing more suchmissiles. So there appeared the situation of direct confrontation.
• The situation reached a stalemate.
• Due to MAD, Leaders of the two superpowers-maintained contact by means of lettersandtelephonemessages.Neitherwantedtheworldtobeplungedinto was. Both were under a lot of pressure.
• Brinkmanship:Inthenextfewdays,asanumberof merchantshipscarrying Soviet missiles approached the ring of the United States warships, the world held its breath and waited for what appeared to be an inevitable US-Soviet clash, which might lead in a matter of hours to all-out thermo-nuclear war.
• The Secretary general of the UN, U Thant, appealed to both sides for restraint.
• De-escalation
• President Kennedy, at the same time as making his firm military response to the situation, was however, was seeking means to leave open a loophole in order to make it as easy as possible for Khrushchev to climb down without much loss of face. While ships were stopped and searched, those, which had no missiles, were allowed to enter Cuban waters.
• Thefirstsignofde-escalationcameon October 26,when Khrushchevsent Kennedy a letter, stating that he would be willing to stop military shipments and withdraw

his forces from Cuba if the US agreed to not invade or support any invasion of its neighbour. Khrushchev ordered Russian ships, carrying additional missiles, to turn back on 27 October 1962. He also promised to remove the missiles and dismantle the launching sites from Cuba.

• In return Kennedy promised that the USA would not invade Cuba again and undertook to disarm the Jupiter missiles in Turkey.

Significance

• The Cuban Missile Crisis had only lasted for a few days, but it was extremely tense, and it had important results. Both sides could claim to have gained something.
• The danger of nuclear war compelled both the superpowers to think over detente.
• Thus, in 1963, for the first time, an initiative was taken for a Hotline Agreement between the two countries which provided direct telephonic connection. Then there was PBT, partial ban agreement.
• There would be no more 'brinkmanship' on the one side or the other.
• The USSR came to realize that it lagged behind the USA in the matter of nuclear arsenals and thus, it started to further strengthen its nuclear stockpile.
• For Europe, the crisishad been the plainest evidence that there wasnow a bi-polar world, in which decisions would be reached by the superpowers without Europe being considered.
• It created differences between USA and France about NATO's policy.

Phase of Détente (1962-79)

During this period significant improvement was witnessed in the relations between the two superpowers. It was a phase of comparative international peace commenced in 1962.

Causes

• The Cuban missile crisis, when it appeared that a full-fledged war was about to break out and MAD would get operational, forced both superpowers to take steps to reduce hostilities and improve the relations.
• Economic difficulties being faced by Soviet Union forced soviet leadership to adopt a conciliatory approach. By 1960 s, the Soviet Union was finding the cost of Cold war competition crippling for civilian economy.
• The West European nations worked actively to improve the relations with Eastern bloc.
• NAM also played an important role by acting as a bridge between the 2 blocs. Developments during détente:
• 1963: Hotline agreement between USA and USSR
• 1963: Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT)
• 1968: Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
• 1971: Improvement in China-US relationship
• Kissinger secretly visited China, facilitated by Pakistan.
• In 1971 Chinese Communist regime was recognized by USA
• In 1972, US President Richard Nixon visited China and met Mao.
• 1972: Nixon-Brezhnev talks led to the signing of SALT I (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty)
• 1973: The withdrawal of American forces from Vietnam also improved the relations.
• The Failure of American policy of containment in Vietnam convinced the US leadership that some other strategies have to be adopted to counter communism.
• 1975: Helsinki Agreement (Helsinki Final Act)
• Theagreementemphasizedtheprincipleoftheinviolabilityofbordersandrespect for territorial integrity, seeking to reduce tensions related to border disputes.
• Itincludedprovisionsforincreasedeconomiccooperationandexchanges between Eastern and Western European countries.
• It was groundbreaking in its inclusion of human rights provisions. Détente could not continue for longer time and proved short-termed. Soon, the old enmity resurfaced, new tensions appeared, and the cold war was revived by the end of 1970 s.

New/Second Cold War (1979-85)

During this period the hostilities between the capitalist and communist blocs got intensified once again. Both the blocs condemned each other and took vows to destroy the opponent.

• It was triggered by Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979)
• In Dec 1979, Soviet Union captured Afghanistan. This move terrified the western capitalist nations. They realized that Soviet Union was not muchinterestedinpeace,anditwasdetermined to spread communism.
• Inresponse:USAannouncedtheboycottof 1980 summer Olympics held in Moscow.
• There were other proxy conflicts:
• Iran-Iraq War, the civil war in El Salvador, and the Angolan Civil War.
• These proxy conflicts further destabilized international relations and made it more difficult to achieve peace in these regions.
• Rhetorical escalation: In 1983, US president Ronald Regan termed Soviet Union as Evil Empire.
• This was taken as great insult by the Soviet leadership and it boycotted summer Olympics 1984 held in Los Angeles.
• Intensified Arms Race: Both the US and the Soviet Union significantly increased their military spending during this period, leading to a major arms race.
• SDI: Strategic Defence Initiative (Star War) was undertaken by USA.
• The US led western Alliance established new missile bases in West Germany.
• Nuclear brinkmanship:
• NATO deployed intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Western Europe. ▪ This move was met with strong opposition and protests, contributing to a climate of heightened military tensions.

End of the Cold War (1985-91)

With the elections of Mikhail Gorbachev as Soviet President in 1985, the Cold War hostilities started getting reduced and ultimately in 1991 it came to an end.

• USSR Side:
• Due to the crisis in the economy of the USSR, the armed race became almost unsustainable for USSR.

▪ It was the time when President of the USA, Ronald Regan, declared his famous 'SDI Programme' (Star War program). Although the technological feasibility of the program was not clear, still it created deep psychological pressure over USSR.

• Theliberalpolicyof Russianpresident Gorbachevandhisdefenceminister Eduard Shevardnadze resulted in the easing of tensions.

▪ In fact, itwas the USSR which tooka major initiative in a bigger curtailment of weapons. Gorbachevwas a liberal and a progressive visionary leader.He tookconsciousstepstoreducethehostilitieswithwest,becausehewanted to revive soviet economy to save the existence of communism.

• American Side:
• By 1980 s,American economy had also started experiences stress and strain due to the burden of Cold war competition.
• The USA came under pressure from its allies to ease the tension with Soviet Russia.

▪ In fact, European nations planned construction of a 3500-km long gas pipeline from USSR directly to consumption centres. (Siberian Pipeline directly to Germany)

▪ Butdue to thepressure from the sideof Americanpresident Ronald Regan, this program was dropped.

▪ As a result of this west European countries felt much disturbed.

• President Reagan felt the pressure even from American people. ▪ In fact, in America, an anti-nuclear consciousness had already developed.

▪ As the year 1984 was an election year for the American president so, the American president followed the policy of peace in order to appease the American public opinion.

• Eastern Europe: Downfall of communism in the Eastern Europe during 1988-91 greatly weakened the eastern bloc.
• The communist governments were successfully overthrown in Czechoslovakia (1989), Romania (1990), Albania (1990), Bulgaria (1990), Hungary (1990) & Poland (1990).
• Berlin wall was also opened in Nov 1989 and in 1990, Germany was re-unified.
• These Changes in eastern Europe greatly improved the relations with nations and Cold War hostilities got reduced drastically.
• Disintegration of the USSR in Dec 1991 destroyed the concept of second world. The communist bloc was no more, and the Cold War came to an end.

Impact of the cold war

• During the cold war, the foreign policies of most of the countries were subordinated to the policy of the USA or that of USSR.
• The cold war created the way for the new conflict but didn't solve the old ones. The old conflicts resurfaced after the cold war, which were covered/suppressed temporarily.
• For example, Kuwait remained to be an independent nation right from 1961 onwards, but Iraq invaded Kuwait after 1990 when the cold war ended.
• The cold war encouraged the process of decolonization or the liberation of colonies.
• Even before the end of WWII, the USA campaigned for the cause of the liberation of colonies with its famous Atlantic Charter (1941). But during the Cold War, to strengthen

its position, the USA toppled the democratic government and supported dictatorships in many regions.

• The Cold War fueled an unprecedented arm race.
• Itled to significanttechnological advancements in militaryand spacetechnology. Theseadvancementshad spin-offeffectsincivilian applications,impactingvarious industries.
• An illegal market for weapons was created in many parts of the world.
• Nuclear: ▪ The arms race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union led to the development of vast nuclear arsenals.

▪ The proliferation of nuclear technology to other states also became a concern.

• Space Militarization: The Cold War extended to space exploration, as both superpowers sought to gain a strategic advantage in the new frontier. The militarization of space has continued in the post-Cold War era, raising concerns about potential conflicts and arms races in space.
• During the cold war, the region of Asia and Africa as well as Latin America remained to be disturbed but it was the time there was relative peace and prosperity in Europe. The integration of Europe started during this period.
• The Cold War saw numerous proxy wars in various regions, including Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Africa. Many of these conflicts left lasting scars, contributed to ongoing regionaltensions,and,insomecases,laidthegroundworkforcontemporarygeo political challenges.
• The Cold Warhighlightedtheimportanceofcollectivesecurityandtheroleof the United Nations in maintaining peace and preventing conflict.
• The UN played a crucial role in peacekeeping missions and conflict resolution efforts.
• Despite the ideological divide, the Cold War also fostered economic interdependence.
• Countries became reliant on each other for resources and trade.
• This interdependence has increased in the post-Cold War era.
• The Cold War also coincided with the rise of civil rights and social movements, as people challenged discrimination and advocated for equality. These movements gained momentum in the context of the Cold War ideological struggle.

“…to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime”

has brought untold sorrow to mankind."

• UN Charter UNO was established on 24 Oct 1945 by the peace-loving nations of the world to protect future generation from destruction and devastations caused by wars.

Background for the formation of UNO

• The WW II had left behind a trail of devastation: almost 60 million people perished, compared to 20 million during the WWI.
• World leaders, who had learnt from the failure of Lo N, were eager to establish a successful UNO.
• The influence of the principles of the Atlantic Charter (1941).
• Agreement between USA, Britain, USSR and China on 1 st Jan 1942 to form an international peace organisation. (Declaration of UN in the Arcadia Conference)
• The United Nations Charterwassignedby 51st atesatthe San Francisco Conference which was held on 25 April 1945. These nations became the founder members of the UNO.
• The Charter was adopted on 25 June 1945, and it declared the aims and objectives of the UN.

Aims and Objectives of the UNO (as per Charter)

• To preserve peace and to eliminate war.
• To suppress those powers that violate peace and to solve international disputes.
• To remove the causes of conflict by encouraging economic, social, educational, scientific and cultural progress as well as co-operation throughout the world.
• To safeguard rights of nations and men. Six main organs of UNO
• General Assembly:
• It is the main deliberative organ of the UN.
• It is made up of all UN member states having equal voting rights. ▪ Every member nation can send 5 representatives and 5 additional representatives to UNGA, but every member nation has one vote.
• Functions:

▪ It directs UNSC to take steps for maintaining peace and harmony in the world. It receives reports from UNSC about actions, undertaken and discusses them.

▪ It elects temporary members of UNSC.

▪ It undertakes necessary studies for promoting international co-operation.

▪ It supervises the trusteeship arrangement for the territories placed under UN administration.

▪ It discusses and passes UN budget.

• The General Assembly begins its sessions in the month of September every year. In addition to the regular sessions, special sessions can be held according to requirement.
• Security Council:
• It is the main executive organ of the UN.
• It consists of 15 members, of which 5 are permanent and 10 are non-permanent. ▪ Only the permanent members have veto power.
• The Security Council is known as the heart of the UN as diverse nature of work is done here.
• Function: ▪ Taking important decisions like inclusion of new member, sanction on any errant country, declaration of war etc.

▪ It is responsible for maintaining international peace. It controls the UN peacekeeping force.

▪ It implements the decisions of UNO and sends reports to UNGA.

▪ Prior approval of UNSC is request for entry of new member in UNO.

▪ It holds its sessions fortnightly, but the meetings can be held at shorter intervals according to requirements.

• Economic and Social Council:
• The purpose of the Council is to assure economic and social welfare and to make people conscious about human rights.
• Has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly to serve staggered three-year mandates.
• Co-ordinates co-operation between the UN's numerous specialized agencies like

Unesco, Ilo, Imf, Imo, Wipo

• Trusteeship Council:
• Itwasformedin 1945 tooverseethedecolonisationofthosedependentterritories that were placed under the international trusteeship system created by the UN charter asa successor to the League of Nationsmandate system. It made sure that the imperial powers couldn't reassert their influence on these territories.
• It is in suspended state since Nov 1994 as UNO has no territory under its admin control.
• International Court of Justice:
• It is the principal judicial organ of the UN. It is designed for dispute resolution among the member states.
• Judges are elected by the members of the Security Council and General Assembly in two separate votes.
• The judges have diplomatic immunity, but their judgment is not binding on the member states.
• The Secretariat:
• It is headed by the UN General Secretary who is chosen every 5 years. ▪ The first Secretary-General of the UNO was Trygve Li.

▪ The Secretary-General has to submit an annual report to the General Assembly regarding the activities of the UN.

▪ He is able to draw the attention of the Security Council to any situation he considers serious.

• It looks after day to day functioning of UNO. Fundamental ideals and principles of the UNO
• UN respects the sovereignty of nations. It does not interfere in the internal matters of a country.
• UN endeavours to performs its duties and responsibilities honestly in accordance of principle of equality.
• UNendeavourstoresolveallissuespeacefully military action is only used as a last resort.

Nature and character of the UN

• UN is symbol of internationalism.
• UN believes in the doctrine of peaceful co-existence.
• UN is the biggest multilateral platform in the world.
• UN is a democratic institution.
• There is an egalitarian outlook in UNGA.
• All the member nation has one vote.
• Every member nation has representation in UNGA.
• UN is liberal and progressive institution.
• It has always stood for humanity, principle of self-determination and freedom of people.
• UN has propagated scientific outlook through its various programs.
• UN is not a just politico military platform. Its social cultural programs are equally important.

League of Nations v/s the UNO As UNO was formed after the failure of the league of nations, thus an attempt was made to make it more powerful and effective.

• UNO is more representative compared to the League of Nations. It has much more members.
• The UN Charter is a much longer and a more explicit document than the League Covenant and thus its functions are more extensive.
• The equal powersof Assembly and Council was considered the main reason for the failure of League of Nations. Thus, in UNO, Security Council was given more power than the General assembly.
• Powerfulcountrieswerenothavinganyspecialpowerin the Leagueof Nations.Thus,they didn't get any motivation to put effort for world peace. Thus, in UNO, apart from the

equality of the nations, there is a concept of special status for powerful countries. This is in the form of 'Veto' power given to five permanent members of the Security Council.

• League of Nations didn't have any military arrangement, but UNO has such provision. UN is provided with a Military Staff Committee to consider the use of armed forces by the

Security Council for the maintenance of global peace and security.

However, despite detailed provisions on paper for the maintenance of global peace, there is still a huge scope for improvement of overall effectiveness of the UN.

Assessment of the career of UN Althoughnearly 75 yearsafter itsestablishment,the UN hasgained a veryprominentposition in world society, there are still many problems which the UN could not solve. In terms its success and failure, UN has been a mixed story.

The UN was established with the ambition of maintaining international peace and security.

The successful functioning of the UN depends on the mutual understanding and cooperation of the member states. However, since the members of UN do not all have equal rights, and as the permanent members of the Security Council enjoy special privileges, the principle of equality has not been implemented in practice. The UN can function much better if the big powers do not intervene in various issues to protect their vested interests.

Achievements of UNO

• Political:
• UNO played an important role in disposing various international conflicts.
• The Suez Canal Crisisof 1956, Congo Crisis of 1961, the First Gulf Crisis of 1990-91, Cambodia Crisis of 1993 etc are few good examples.
• Kosovo crisis was resolved in 2006. o
• Economic:
• It encourages new research through its specialised agencies like the IMF, ILO etc to improve economic scenario of the world.
• FAO….
• Social:
• It achieved breakthrough in the field of health. Smallpox and Polio are under control now. It became possible via huge vaccination programmes. Major efforts are being made for the control of AIDS.
• Cultural:
• UNO's effort to restore remains of forgotten cultures of ancient world is commendable.
• UNESCO Limitations of UNO
• It has limited success in political field.
• Due to the veto arrangement the whole system couldn't work properly during the cold war.

▪ Even after the cold war it was not much effective. E.g., the Iraq war (US invasion on Iraq) in 2003, the Libya war (2011) and Syria war and the current Ukraine invasion by Russia and Israel-Hamas couldn't be stopped or handled properly by UNO.

• UNO depends on member nations for military support. But there is no clear arrangement for the fulfilment of the same.
• It doesn't have any proper funding arrangement.

▪ Since it is mainly dependent on US funds, thus US enjoys undue influence on the organisation.

• Discernible USA influence
• UNO was formed in 1945 and its structure remains almost unchanged till date.
• Its composition reflects the political truth of 1945 even today in 2020 s. Today, the power status of various countries has changed and the countries in the Security Council don't enjoy the same power today. Thus, this arrangement should be changed, and new roles should be given to rising powers like India, Brazil, Japan, and Nigeria etc.