Medieval Europe (500 CE - 1500 CE)

Holy Roman Empire

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, a new

system of feudalism was established in Europe.

Charlemagne, successor of Pepin, took control of the

Frankish kingdom and founded an empire in 800 CE. Pope

himself crowned Charlemagne in the same year and

declared his empire as Holy Roman Empire.

This Holy Roman Empire took part in the crusades and

became the sole protector of the Roman Catholic

Church.

Features of Feudalism

• Political/Administrative:

• German tribes were settled in different parts

of Europe and tribal chief started to rule as a

regional patriarch. Then, as the result of

conflict and coordination a hierarchy was created.

• The power and influence of the ruler diminished in this period. He was nominal

head, but real power was exercised by feudal lords.

• The ruler was assisted by the feudal lords who were given land (manor).
• Hierarchical structure: King → Feudal lords → barons → knights → Peasants

(Serfdom)

• Economic:

• Decline in urbanization, trade & commerce.
• Agriculture became the means of living.

▪ Manorialism

▪ Guild

• Serfdom was the unique characteristic of feudalism.

• Social:

• Broadly divided into three classes - nobility, clergy, and common people.

▪ Feudal nobility (uppermostclass)controlledvasttrackof landand alsohad

special privileges.

▪ Clergy had privileges and also became big landlords in the name of church,

but they did not pay any tax.

▪ Peasants, craftsmen, artisans (common people) with inadequate land but

maximum tax burden.

The Holy Roman Empire was in

western and central Europe

and included parts of what is

now France, Germany, and

Italy. Its boundaries changed

over time.

• So, there was clear socio-economic and

political inequality. There was no space for

any kind of change.

• Feudalism was anti-individual freedom. It

was based on formalism, patriarchy,

elitism, and social stratification where

there was no scope for individual freedom

and rights.

• Religious: Roman Catholic Church system

• Earlier, Christianity was simple and free

from rituals.

• During 8 th century CE, Roman Catholic

Church adopted a new form.

▪ It was based on the teachings of

Mediaeval Christian saints Peter

Lombard and Thomas Aquinas.

They emphasized on priestly culture and 7 Sacraments for salvation which

could be presided over by the clergy only.

• Thus, started Universal/Catholic Church System which came to dominate socio-

cultural life of European people.

▪ It gave guidelines to every Christian. It did not advocate for humanism and

individualism, but it focused on salvation. Individuals had no identity, and

nobodycouldspeakagainst the Church.Ifanyonedidso,an inquisitionwas

issued against him.

▪ Under this system, the headquarters of the Church was established at

Rome while its branches were spread to different parts of Europe.

▪ It started imposing tax on people (tithe) andpartof such money was spent

on the local Church while the remaining amount was transferred to Rome.

Apart from that, church came to own landed properly as well. So, the

Church was like a feudal lord.

▪ As a junior lord kneeled before senior lord/baron/king and give reverence,

such oblations and postures also prevailed within the Church system.

Thus, Mediaeval Age had certain characteristics - feudalism in the political sphere, guild

system and trade in the economic sphere, feudalistic value system in the social structure, the

Holy Roman Empire and the Universal Church System in the field of religion, conservative logic

in the field of philosophy, romantic approach based on feudalistic values in the area of

literature, Gothic architecture in the field of architecture etc.

It was thus considered as the period between the decline. Only in the 15 th century, their

disintegration created possibilities for the changes in socio-economic and political sphere. It

was brought by the Renaissance, the Reformation Movement, geographical exploration, and

scientific inventions. This change is called the 'Rise of Modern West'.

Medieval Period: Rise and spread of Islam

Rise of Islam:

Islam had originated in the tribal region of Arab. These tribal people had a fighting instinct

and always indulged in battles. The genesis of Islam also witnessed battles and wars.

Rise of Islam was a product of the socio-economic

changes of the time:

On one side of Arabian Peninsula there was Sassanian

empire in Persia while on the other side, there was

Eastern Roman Empire.

• Due to the continuous war between the two, there

was diversion of trade traffic from Persian Gulf

towards Red Sea. It was the region of Mecca and

warring nomadic Bedouin tribe. They now got

involved in the trade.

• Among Arabian tribes, there was sectarianism, idol-

worship and priesthood. Thus, there was social and religious strife also.

In this context, continuation of the internecine warfare would have created hurdles. In this

context,theriseof Islamhelpedpeoplecometogether. Prophet Muhammadproducedanew

sect called Islam - total surrender to one God (tawhid, monotheism) - with one of the

objectives to create brotherhood and keep unity in tribal regions.

The geo-political condition of Arabian region which made Islam aggressive from the

beginning:

• Hijrat: There were various vested interests in various tribes who opposed him, there was

an attempt at his life as well. So, he left Mecca and moved to Madina in Hijri era started.

• In Medina, he acquired political power, started tax on local people, started mediation in

case of conflict. In one sense, the establishment of Islamic state happened at Madina.

• After a long fight, he eventually conquered Mecca which became the centre of Islamic

state.

Spread of Islam:

• Rashidun Caliphate (631-661):

• Prophet Muhammad passed away in

1. He didn't nominate any successor.

There appeared 4 elected caliphs - Abu

Bakr, Umar, Usman and Ali (son-in-law

of Muhammad)

• They ruled between 632 and 661. In

these three decades, there was a rapid

expansion.

• Itwasparticularly under Caliph Umartherewasalargerexpansionof Islam.
• Under Usman, it reached its maximum extent.

• Expansion:

• First: Syria and Egypt

• Then: Iraq and Iran.
• Later: Central Asia
• Shia-Sunni Sectarianism (leadership succession issue)

• After Prophet Muhammad's death, there was a dispute among his followers

about who should succeed him as the leader of the Muslim community (ummah).

• By the end of Rashidun, there was a civil war in which Ali was assassinated in the

battle of Siffin.

• In the battle of Karbala (680), Ali's sons Hasan and Husain were also

assassinated.

• Umayyad Dynasty (661-750)

• It was founded by Muawiyah I, who

triumphed over the Prophet

Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, to

become the fifth caliph.

• Capital: Damascus
• Rapid expansion of territory, from

Spain to India.

• Abdul Malik

• Centralized authority within the Islamic civilization
• Policy of Arabization - language, administrators, coinage
• The post of Caliph became hereditary.

• Theirdeclinebeganwithadefeatby the Byzantine Empirein 717;inter-tribalfeud,

discontent among non-Arab Muslim converts, and the failure of financial reforms

eventually led to their unseating by the Abbasid dynasty.

• Abbasids (750-1259)

• Capital: Baghdad (founded by Al-

Mansur in 762)

• Features

• A formidable global empire

stretching from Spain, Africa to

Asia.

• Golden Age of Islam (science,

trade, culture)

• Dependenceon Persianculture

of governance, absorption of Persian customs by elites

• In 1258, Halaku Khan, the grandson of Changez Khan, assassinated the Caliph.

• Now the post of Caliph started to move, and different seats came into

being and now this post became controversial.

• Change in ethnic composition:

• Earlier only Arabs were Muslims.
• Then West Asians and Persians.
• Gradually the Central Asian warrior classes like Turks and Mongols were

converted to Islam.

Medieval Period: Crusades and Geographical Exploration

Crusades:

The annexation of Jerusalem was the motive behind the crusades.

• Religious factor:
• In Islam, it is considered as third

holiest place after Mecca and

Medina. It is believed that this

city had an association with

Prophet Mohammad.

• This place also had very close

association with Jesus.

• Economic factor:
• It was the center of world trade

in the contemporary period.

• It is the meeting point for merchants from Eastern and Western world.

Therefore, both Islam and Christianity wanted to establish their suzerainty on Jerusalem. This

struggle was called Crusades. There were three crusades between 1095 CE and 1291 CE.

• France was ardent supporter of Catholic Church. So was Holy Roman Empire from

German region. All these armies moved into West Asia.

• It remained indecisive but it was destructive. However, even this destructive event

could produce some progressive results: a trade route was opened between NW

Europe and West Asia.

Geographical Exploration:

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE, the European trade route with the eastern world

was blocked. On the other hand, Italian merchants began to take advantage of this blockade.

The Christian states of Europe were very dissatisfied with this situation. Therefore, Portugal

and Spain started making efforts to find alternative routes.

• The ruler of Portugal Henry the Navigator
• The ruler of Spain Ferdinand and Queen Isabella
• Ideological support from the Pope for this campaign.

These efforts came up with positive results:

• Asia
• P: Bartholomew Diaz discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 CE
• P: Vasco Da Gama discovered India in 1498 CE.
• West
• S: Columbus discovered America in 1492 CE.
• S: Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513 CE
• S: Ponce de León discovered Florida in 1513 CE
• Globe
• S: Magellan circumnavigated the globe in 1519-22 CE.

Although Portugal and Spain took major initiatives for the geographical exploration, later

British, French and Dutch etc. also joined these exploratory missions.

These geographical explorations produced long lasting results in world history.

• It made possible the exchange of ideas between the west and the east → Renaissance.
• It inspired the commercial revolution.
• It gave impetus to European colonialism.

Early Modern Europe: Renaissance

The Renaissance is considered as the genesis of the modern age. 'Renaissance' is a French

term meaning 'revival/rebirth/reawakening' etc. It reflects attitudinal/ideological change of

European people.

• It was a period in European civilization that was marked by a revival of Classical learning

and wisdom.

• It saw many contributions to different fields, including new scientific laws, new forms of

art and architecture, and new religious and political ideas.

• It was an intellectual and artistic movement that brought major change in the attitude of

the people towards the problems of human life.

• It marked the transition from mediaeval to the modern period in Europe.

The Renaissance begun in Italy during the 14 th century and reached its height in the 15 th

century. It spread to the rest of Europe in the 16 th and 17 th centuries.

Now on the threshold of this Mediaeval Age, a new consciousness was developed which is

known as the Renaissance.

Elements of Renaissance:

• Curiosity and spirit of enquiry: it encouraged

scientific inventions/discoveries.

• Rise in spirit of adventure: sea voyages
• Humanism: Recognize dignity of man

• There was an emphasis on the study of

Greek and Latin classical literature

which were full of humanism.

• General meaning: It is an ideology. It glorifies man and Nature instead of the

divinity and the other world.

• There was a preference for the study of those subjects which were characterized

as humanities.

• In the view of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, an Italian humanist during 15 th

century, 'man is a great miracle'.

• This new spirit of humanity was also expressed in new art and literature.

• Individualism: Composition of autobiography. (eg by Cellini)

• Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe - in their plays one sees the assertion of

humanism and individualism.

• It was very disturbing to Church - which considered the very birth of a man as

sinful and then recording the story of that sinful life now.

• Human beings started to assert themselves. Self-satisfaction and a feeling of pride

in one's achievements are the essence of individualism.

• Secularism: To expose hypocrisy of priests.

• Secularism means - first, taking more interest in worldly activities and second,

criticismofsuchpriestswhotalkaboutrenunciationbutdonotfollowthemselves.

• Historical Self-Consciousness:

• This was a sign of changing attitude towards history.

So, on all these three fronts, Renaissance was a challenge to prevalent medieval worldview

of Europe.

Causes:

• Economic Prosperity:

• Economic prosperity supported the Renaissance in many ways:

▪ New/progressive ideas were brought back by merchants traveling to

various countries back to Europe. (eg famous libraries of Baghdad, Cairo

and Cordoba)

▪ Trade and commerce → urbanization (e.g. Venice, Milan, Florence,

Nuremberg) facilitated exchange of ideas and development of knowledge.

▪ Accumulation of wealth → spare time for learning to common people.

• In the 13 th - 14 th centuries CE, commercial towns transformed into powerful city-

states and began to dominate politically and economically in the surrounding

countryside region.

▪ Newly wealthy merchants, who were called 'Bourgeoisie' in later period,

attempted to get the aristocratic status. (rise of middle class)

• The Florentine family of the Medici had made a huge profit in the

bankingbusiness,andsuccessfullygotaristocraticstatusin the 15 th

century CE.

▪ The Italian nobles also became associated with the urban life.

▪ Both these new classes gave impetus to the new ideas.

• Newstylein Literature,artandarchitecturewerepatronizedby the

merchant class in Italy.

• Theygavemoreemphasisonthestudyof those subjectswhichhad

practical utility.

• In this way, a strong base had been prepared for the emergence of new ideology

in Italy.

• Geographic advantage to Italy: A natural gateway between the East and the West.

• Cities like Venice, Genoa, Milan, Pisa, and Florence had uninterrupted trade

relations with Asian countries and thus, Italian society was very dynamic &

progressive.

• Additionally, Italy was closer with the Classical past due to proximity with ancient

Roman monuments.

• The crusades played a very important role in the genesis of the Renaissance.

• Europeans came in closer contact with the peoples of the East, who were

enlightened.

▪ At this time Arab race had a special status in the countries of the East who

led the foundation of a prosperous civilization after comingin contactwith

Greek and Indian civilizations.

• The Crusades gave impetus to geographical explorations.
• Thisresultedintheintellectualdevelopmentof Europeans.Aristotle'stexts,Arabic

language, arithmetic, algebra, paper, compass etc., came to Europe during the

crusades.

• In 1453 CE, Turks captured Constantinople. It led to the migration of scholars,

intellectuals, artists, philosophers, and architects to Western Europe.

• In the mediaeval period, Europeans learned the art of paper making through their

contacts with the Arabs. In the middle of the 15 th century CE, John Gutenberg, from

Germany, invented a printing machine. The development of the printing machine paved

the way for intellectual development. The invention of paper and printing machines led

to the development of the publication system.

• Thepatronagetoscholarsofvariousbackgroundsby the Mongolruler Kublai Khan'scourt

can also be considered for promoting the new consciousness.

• Universities began to be established in Europe in the 12 th century and onwards.

• Bologna, Paris, Oxford etc. were prominent among the early universities.
• These universities are believed to have encouraged innovative and progressive

ideas.

The Renaissance in various walks of life:

• Literature

• With thedevelopmentofrenaissance, Europeanlanguages achieved theirliterary

form, although Latin language remained in use for some time in the fields of

philosophy and science. This change was closely associated with the national

consciousness emerging at that time.

• The following writers provided expression to the Renaissance consciousness

through their works.

▪ Italy: Petrarch (father of Italian Renaissance literature) and Boccaccio

▪ Spain: Cervantes (satire of feudalist values in his composition 'Don

Quixote'.)

▪ English: William Shakespeare

▪ William Shakespeare

• Art

• With the development of Renaissance consciousness, an important change took

place in the field of art.

• By this time, art was largely freed from religion due to economic prosperity and

the partial victory of secular spirit. Most of the art was now inspired by secular

themes.

• Artists got their own individual identity in the renaissance period. The painters of

the Renaissance period took the painting as a form of life.

• More emphasis was placed on the physical aspect than the religious aspects.

▪ Theystudiedopticsandgeometryandstartedusingprojectionsinpictures.

▪ They gave emphasis on the study of anatomy to understand the internal

system of human gestures.

▪ Achieving sensual pleasure became the just objective of art.

• Painting

▪ There was a substantial development in the field of painting in Italy.

▪ Giotto was very prominent among the early painters of Renaissance art.

▪ Renaissance consciousness achieved its complete expression by the works

of Leonardo da Vinci (The Last Supper and the Mona Lisa), Michelangelo

and Raphael.

• Sculptures

▪ Sculpture was freed from the subjugation of architecture and established

as an independent art.

▪ The first important sculptor of this era was Donatello.

▪ Gothic architecture came to an end under the influence of Renaissance

consciousness.Vaultedroofs,pointedarchesandflyingbuttresseswere the

basicfeaturesofthisarchitecturalstyle.Anewarchitecturestyledeveloped

first in Italy and later in other parts of Europe.

• Science: Modern science began with the Renaissance.

• The thinkers of this era believed that 'knowledge could be obtained not by merely

contemplating but through exploring and reading the book based on the nature'

• Astronomy

▪ Copernicus led a revolution in the field of astronomy when he declared

that the earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun.

▪ Giordano Bruno was burnt alive on stake on charges of heresy by the

Inquisition.

▪ Thisnewnotionwasjustifiedby Galileowiththeinventionofthetelescope,

but he was forced to withdraw his views.

▪ The German scientist, Kepler, with the help of mathematic calculation,

confirmed that the planets revolve around the Sun.

▪ Isaac Newton proved that all celestial bodies behave under the influence

of gravity.

• Human body and blood circulation.

▪ Belgian scientist Andreas Vesalius published his work 'De Humani Corporis

Fabrica' with images. (1543 CE)

▪ A complete demonstration of the blood circulation was presented by the

English scientist Harvey. (circa 1610)

• The development of science introduced new methods of investigations which

began to be used in the study of other disciplines too.

• Philosophy

• The development of rationality encouraged merchants and philosophers.

▪ Intellectuals of the Italian renaissance expressed the view that the world is

not an accidental event. It is controlled by the divine laws of nature.

• The early humanists of the Renaissance period criticized conservative logic and

orthodoxphilosophy.Theyconsidered Ciceroastheiridealinsteadof Aristotleand

laid great emphasis on moral philosophy. Ficino and Mirandola were the most

prominent among the early philosophers.

• Later, many philosophers became Platonists, and the Platonic Society was

established in Florence. But not all Italian philosophers were Platonists. Lorenzo

Valla,Leonardoda Vinciand Machiavelliwereprominentphilosophersamong the

non-Platonists.

▪ Valla condemned the philosophy of self-renunciation and declared that it

was foolish to sacrifice one's life for the nation.

▪ Vinci said that there was no need to be dependent on any entity to obtain

the knowledge of the truth. He emphasized the deductive method.

▪ Machiavelli was a practical political philosopher. He had expressed his

views in his texts, such as 'The Prince' and 'Discourses'. He criticized the

political concept of the mediaeval period. He presented the concept of

state in the modern form. According to him, the end is the determinant of

the means. He declared that all people are basically governed by self-

interest. Therefore, the ruler should not expect loyalty from them.

• Erasmus and Bacon were important thinkers in Northern Europe.

▪ Erasmus, who has also been called the Prince of Humanists, criticized the

religious rituals of the Church in his text 'In Praise of Folly.

▪ Francis Bacon emphasized inductive philosophy.

Spread of Renaissance:

The Renaissance didn't remain the same throughout Europe. The manifestation of

renaissance consciousness came with different forms in the different countries of north and

north-western Europe.

Italy had a special place among the European countries. Renaissance consciousness

manifested itself in a specific form in Italy. All the elements of the Renaissance were not

equally present everywhere in Europe. Individualism, secularism, and humanism were

particularly associated with the Italian Renaissance.

Renaissance in Northern Europe:

• The socio-economic conditions of this region were different from those in Italy in many

ways.

• South emerging capitalist enterprise, republicanism, and urban society
• North: feudalism, court culture and rural areas

• In the northern region:

• Renaissance consciousness got its original form in literature and philosophy.
• Renaissance got combined with the Christianity. Humanism of Renaissance

mergedwith'compassion'of Christianityand then 'Christianhumanism'wasborn.

• Humanist influence was mixed with valor and superstitions.
• Didn't remain as just a utopian concept, but it began to be implemented in actual

sense, and then it brought the reformation process within the Christianity.

• The pace of the end of the mediaeval period was relatively slow in Northern Europe.

Impact of the Renaissance

• The individualism arising out from the renaissance consciousness stirred the European

mindset.

• In the economic field, individualism was related to the capitalist consciousness.

• It challenged the paramountcy of the Church and promoted the reformative attitude

within the mass.

• The Renaissance paved the way for the formation of many modern institutions and one of

them was the rise of the modern nation state.

• It prepared the background for the scientific & intellectual movements.

• The scientists of the Renaissance era invented the method of doubt, observation

and experiment, which is being followed even in the modern era.

Early Modern Europe: Reformation Movement

(Transition phase of the European history between the Renaissance and the

Enlightenment)

• Protestant movementwas initiated by Martin Luther whowas a local priest at the Church

of Wittenberg. In 1517 on the wall of the Church, he nailed 95 questions/thesis to be

answered by the Pope.

• As he protested the authority of the Church, it is known as the Protestant movement.

• He challenged the whole Church system itself, the precepts of Peter Lombard and

Thomas Aquinas.Hetried tobring Christiansclose tothe preceptsofearlier saints

like Saint Paul and Saint Augustine.

• He emphasized the individual's direct relationship with God and the authority of

scripture over the authority of the Pope.

• Laterhewasfollowed byother reformerslike Calvin in France and Zwingliin Switzerland.

• It led to the rejection of teaching and practices of Catholic Church and

establishment of Protestant Denominations.

• Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican, Puritans, Baptists, Methodists, Huguenots.

Causes:

(1) Religious factors: Corrupt/evil religious practices

• Church-State synergy

• Mediaeval Catholic Church introduced mandatory membership and called it as

Universal Christian Society.

• It was a synergy of both church and state, in principle ruled by two powers - the

Pope and the Holy Roman Empire.

• The clergy

• Enjoyed a special position within this society as an intermediary. It was necessary

to organize Seven Sacraments for salvation which could be presided over by the

clergy only.

• Many evils and irrelevant rituals had become an integral part of the mediaeval church

system.

• Priests and Cardinals used to have illegitimate wives and children. Not to speak

of common priests, even the Pope Innocent VIII had 8 illegitimate children.

• 'Sale of indulgences' was the climax of these evils.

So, Protestant leaders stood up against these religious evils, but the target of the Protestant

movement was not only these religious evils but the mediaeval church system.

However, as far as religious evils are concerned, the process of 'Counter Reformation' had

started within the Roman Catholic Church system too.

Counter-Reformation

• Counter-Reformation was a response by the Catholic Church to the Protestant

Reformation.

• Actually, it started a little bit before the beginning of Protestant Movement as a

result of Renaissance consciousness and scientific ideas.

• However, when Protestant reformation started, the counter-reformation became

more severe.

▪ Council of Trent (1545-1563)

• Sought to clarify Catholic doctrine and reform Church practices.
• Reaffirmed the Catholic Church's teachings, the authority of the

Pope, and the importance of good works in salvation.

▪ Establishment of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, to spread

Catholicism throughout the world.

So, since religious reform had already begun, then why need to have Protestant movement?

Critics believe that it was because the political and social factors were also active behind it

and not only religious factors.

(2) Political factor: Ambitious rulers of Europe used the Protestant movement to establish

national monarchy in their concerned countries.

• Question of dual-authority: Insofar as the Universal Church existed, national monarchies

could not come into existence.

• Protestant movement gave opportunity to ambitious monarchs to assert the authority.

Bymakinguse of upheaval,theycould makethelocal churchsubordinateto the state and

strengthen their national boundary.

(3) Economic factor:

• The local Church owned the land under the Manorial system. With the disintegration of

feudalism, the aristocratic class was almost impoverished and thus had its eye over

Church property and looked for an opportunity to grab it.

• Local church was authorized to impose tithe, other taxes and sell indulgences and earn

money. With the growing nationalist consciousness among the European people, there

started some opposition to it. They started to treat it as if it was drain of local wealth to

Rome.

• The interest of the newly emerging mercantile class:

• Money lending and profit making are the backbone of commerce, which was

considered immoral by the Roman Catholic Church.

• Weber (German sociologist) - Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism.

Consequences:

The Reformation movement played a significant role in the rise of the modern West:

• Itcreatedariftinthetwoimportantmediaevalinstitutions-the Universal Churchsystem

and the Holy Roman Empire.

• Through this way, it paved the way for the emergence of nation states.

• It gave a major boost to capitalism by providing legitimacy to money lending and profit

making.

Early Modern Europe: Commercial Revolution

The commercial revolution played a major role in the economic transformation of Europe.

Three factors which could have given a serious jolt to status quoism in Europe and prepared

the way for change and progress: (two out of three were destructive factors yet all of them

produced constructive outcome)

The 16 th c.markeda major eventinthehistoryof Europe -severalsignificantchangesin trade

and commerce. As a result, the nature of European trade changed. These important changes

were -

• Widespread and growing influence of the market
• Increase in inter-regional trade.

• End of localism
• Surge in overseas trade

• Creation of Money economy

• By the end of 13 th century CE, coins like Venetian Ducat and Lorraine's Lorraine

hadgainedacceptance in Italyandintheinternationalmarketof Northern Europe.

• Changes in the mode of production.

• Guild system → 'Putting-Out System' or the domestic system.
• Increased economic specialization.

• Development of new types of business organisations.

• Chartered Company, Joint Stock Company
• State banks
• Bourses (stock market) and future market

• Acceptance of principle of mercantilism

Causes behind the Commercial Revolution:

• Crusades opened new routes between Europe and West Asia, thus paving the way for

greater commercial activities (boost to economy)

• Geographical factors: Fall of Constantinople → Era of sea voyages and geographical

discovery.

• Establishmentof the Ottoman Empireinthe 15 th c.,Western Europelostits Eastern

land trade routes.

• Italy established relationship with Ottomans and started to make huge profit
• It led Western European nations (Spain, Portugal, Britain, Netherland) to search

alternative trade routes. etc.

• Technological change also made sea voyages easier: new shipbuilding, advanced

navigational instruments, charts & maps

• Rise of Yeoman class:

• Decline in feudalism → Rise of Yeoman class (intermediaries between feudal lords

and land labourers)

• They encouraged technological advancement in agriculture and became richer by

producing surplus production.

• It led to two major changes in the rural areas - production for the market and

demand for luxurious goods. It also destroyed serfdom and manorial system.

• Emergence of Protestant religious sect:

• Reformation movement → new liberal religious sect in form of Protestant religion

→ supported trade & commerce.

▪ It gave importance to individual efforts to achieve God/salvation.

▪ It motivated people to earn more profit to live prosperous lives.

▪ It paved the way for religious harmony and democratic values.

• Development of Banking, Insurance & Joint Stock Companies:

• Money lending was recognized as a valid source of income.
• Great Bullion Famine (15 th c): created challenges for Italian merchants →

established modern banking system:

▪ Florentine family of the Medici

▪ Fugger family of Germany.

• Establishment of joint stock companies & insurance companies came with large

scale of trade and bearing minimum risk.

• Role of State:

• A new, ambitious nationalist monarchy favoured/promoted it. Because the state

needed popular and monetary support of the rising aspirational middle class.

• Strong and stable political regime was also favorable for the growth of trade and

commerce.

Once there was money and commercialization, the feudal economy could not bear its brunt.

These all factorsled to the commercialrevolution and emerged asthe grave-diggersof static,

regional, and feudal Europe.

This commercial revolution further supported changes in the socio-economic & political

scenario.

• Decline of feudalism
• Rise of capitalism & mercantilism
• Establishment of nationalist monarchy
• Genesis of middle class
• Background for the Industrial Revolution.

Early Modern Europe: Mercantilism

In the later period, the commercial revolution adopted a new dimension and new principles.

It is called 'mercantilism'. This ideology was prevalent in Europe from 16 th-18 th c.

In a broad sense, mercantilism was an economic system based on government intervention

and its aimwas to bringeconomic growth in thenation andincreasethe power of thestate.

Even though it is considered an economic programme, its objectives were political. The

mercantilist policies were implemented by the nation-states/nationalist monarchy.

These monarchical-states took following steps:

• Bullionism: Emphasized inflow of bullion into the state.
• Balance of Trade: Wanted favourable balance of trade. So, they followed discriminatory

taxation policy.

• Self-reliance in the matter of production - state support - to curtail import.
• Colonialism: Started colonisingnewareasto establish their control for more resources for

their faster growth.

Active participation of the state in the trade expansion and the need to reduce trade

difficulties brought both the state and the merchant class closer.

Thus, mercantilism met the economic expectations of the emerging nation state. It

strengthened the economic base of the nation-state. It paved the way for colonialism.

Early Modern Europe: Nationalist Monarchy

Alongside commercial revolution and mercantilism, there was the 'Rise of Nation State and

the Autocratic Monarchy'.

The emergence of the modern state system was the result of some fundamental politico-

economic developments in Europe between 15 th-17 th c.

• Decline of feudalism:

• Economic

▪ The flow of silver gave birth to the price revolution. This meant that the

condition of the classes which were associated with commerce and trade

improved, on the other hand, the economic and social condition of the

aristocracy went through a blow.

▪ The land became freed from feudal control and transformed into a market

commodity. Thus, a capitalist class came into light.

• Socio-Religious

▪ The Renaissance encouraged a new consciousness in Europe and

weakened the 'Manor system'.

▪ With Reformation, the unity of the Roman Catholic world was broken and

the power and prestige of the Holy Roman Empire, the guardian of the

Roman Catholic Church, came under threat. It enabled the kings to bring

local Churchunderthestateauthoritythroughdemarcationofthenational

boundaries.

In this way, economic, political, and religious issues were all closely connected to each other.

The ambitious rulers of Europe took some concrete steps to strengthen their position.

• They implemented mercantile policies to make ends meet the economic requirements of

the nation-states.

• They gained the support of the newly emerging middle class against the feudal lords.
• They introduced the system of regular taxation.
• Direct centralized Rule: They formed a standing army and an independent bureaucracy.
• They adopted the Roman legal system which gave emphasis to the powerful monarchy.
• Another powerful tool of centralization in the modern state system was the promotion of

cultural homogeneity among the people of the state. As a result of this, concepts like

nation and nationalism developed.

• Propaganda by the king and ideological support by scholars

• The ambitious European rulers themselves propagated the concept of a powerful

monarchy.

• Some contemporary thinkers like Hobbes, Grotius, Bodin etc. also provided an

ideological basis to the autocratic monarchy.

There were some leading nationalist rulers of Europe:

• Henry VIII and Elizabeth in Britain
• Louis XIV in France

• Maria Theresa and Joseph I in Austria
• Frederick William I and Frederick William the Great in Prussia
• Peter the Great and Catherine the Great in Russia.

Treaty of Westphalia

At the global level, an important issue of that period was the competition between the

Bourbon dynastyand the Habsburgdynasty.Thisissue combined with some other issues gave

rise to the Thirty Years' War.

Thirty Years' War completed the process that had begun with the geographical exploration

and Reformation Movement. It proved to be a great landmark in the history of Europe as it is

with the treaty of Westphalia (1648) that the modern state system came into existence.

Causes:

• Conflict between Protestant and Roman Catholic

in Germany and reprisals to Protestants by Holy

Roman emperor.

• Dynastic rivalry between Bourbon Dynasty and

Habsburg dynasty.

• Division of European countries on religious line

and their involvement in this war. Therefore, the

war took the form of the all-European war.

Consequences:

It changed the very basis for the future battles. Although this war was fought with religious

issues, secular issues influenced events from beginning to end.

This war ended with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).

• Although the war remained indecisive, the power and prestige of the Holy Roman Empire

received a major blow. It ended the political hegemony of the Holy Roman Empire. This

resulted in the emergence of small German states.

• The importance lies in the fact that it laid the foundation stone of the modern political

system.

• Defined geographical boundary.
• Irrespective of their size, the principle of equality of all states was accepted.
• Each nation had the right to formulate its foreign policy, to join a bloc of nations

and to declare war for its own benefit.

• This treaty introduced the concept of international law first time and stated that all

European states, regardless of their size and their power, were equal according to

international law and the nation states had the right to full control over their people and

their territory.

• Use of diplomacy as an alternative to wars.
• It was the first European Congress, and, in a sense, it was also a precursor to the

Congress of Vienna and the Paris Peace Conference.

• Grotius drafted international law for the first time.

• Theconceptof Balanceof Powercameintoexistence,anditstartedtoguidetherelations

between European nations.

• This concept was based on that of a nation-state with a clear geographical

boundary and a fully sovereign status.

• In a sense, even the First World War and the Second World War were fought to

maintain a balance of power.

• After the Second World War and the decolonization, Westphalia system expanded

to Afro-Asian regions as well.

Thus, the process of the Rise of modern West was completed till 17 th century CE.

Upsc Cse Pyq

England IR: Causes

• "Whoever says Industrial Revolution, says cotton." Comment. [2011, 20 m]
• Explain why England became the harbinger of Industrial Revolution. Also throw light on

its social consequences. [2017, 20 m]

• There were many reasons why the industrial revolution first happened in England.

Critically examine. [2021, 10 m]

Impact: England

• The Industrial Revolution "Changed England in character and culture." Comment.

[1996, 20 m]

• "The oppressive exploitation of the working class in the wake of Industrial Revolution

had jolted the social conscience of England." Elucidate. [2015, 10 m]

• The impact of industrial revolution on the middle-class world view is reflected in the

views of Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus and Jeremy Bentham. Comment. [2023, 20

Marks]

Impact: General

• "The Industrial Revolution putmobilityintheplaceofstability." Comment.[1990,20 m]
• The Industrial Revolution brought about great changes in the social and economic life

of Europe. Explain. [1998, 60 m]

• "The Industrial Revolution put mobility in the place of stability." Critically examine.

[2018, 10 Marks]

• "Industrial Revolution had far reaching social and political consequences with the

advent of assembly line factories, urbanization and rise of the urban working class."

Critically examine. [2020, 10 m]

• Do you agree that the economic effects of the Industrial Revolution were to add

enormously to wealth and capital on the one hand, and to degrade the masses to

permanent poverty on the other? Elucidate. [2022, 20 m]

The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid technological and social change that began in

Great Britaininthelate 18 th centuryandspreadtootherpartsoftheworldin the 19 th century.

It was characterized by the introduction of new machines and processes that revolutionized

the way goods were produced.

The Industrial Revolution marked the end of old modes of production, and it was the final

move away from medieval feudalism. Within the feudal-social set-up the economy had been

by and large self-sufficient, though the exchange of goods was not totally absent.

Causes of Industrial Revolution in Britain

Britain was the first country in the world to undergo modern industrialization beginning in

1760 s. In the short span of years between the accession of George III (1760- 1820) and that

of his son, William IV (1830-7), the face of England changed.

In thecommercialrevolution,theearlierleadingcountries were Spain and Portugalthen later

Britain, Holland and France joined the race. Then why did other countries lag behind Britain

in the course of Industrialisation? In fact, Britain fulfilled certain conditions which could lead

towards industrialisation.

Causes:

Thisemergenceofmodernindustryin Britainwasfacilitatedbythetypical economic,political,

socio- cultural and religious environment prevailing in Britain. A lot of contributory factors

coalesced with the phenomenon of industrialization. (multi-causal)

• Due to the Agrarian revolution (17 th c in Britain) (eg enclosure movement, tech

innovations like seed-drill leading to increased productivity) and the improvement in the

breeds of animals there was a better availability of food. So, it could result in a growth in

population. As a result of which there was availability of different raw material for

industries and significant percentage of British peasants were liberated from the clutches

of land. These former peasants could work as hired laborers in factories.

• Transportation Revolution

• This period is marked by the development of concrete roads and canals. They

strengthenedthemeansoftransportation,particularly the canalscameinto larger

use for transportation of minerals from mines to the factory sites.

• Being an island nation, the British trade routes were always open the British

merchantscould moveinanydirection freelyasaresultof which the British goods

could find a bigger market.

• Geographic Factor:

• No part of the country was far from the sea.
• Situated beside the North Atlantic Ocean with easy access to overseas market.
• Navigable rivers made inland transport easier.
• The climate was favourable all year round.
• Britain was rich in coal and iron mines.
• The proximity of coal iron mines in Britain also facilitated the emergence of

modern industries.

• Commercial revolution had also taken place in Britain during the 16 th to 18 th century.

• The British merchants were dominating continental trade. The British products

were in great demand in European markets.

• British merchants also had developed trade relations with Asia aswell as America.
• In the 18 th century, there was a development of the banking system

▪ Two major banks Lloyds (1765) and Barclays (1690) emerged as very

powerful financial institutions.

• By the middle of the 18 th century, huge capital accumulation had taken place in

British due to the success of British mercantilism.

• There was growing purchasing power among the people. So, the internal market

of Britain just expanded.

• British economicactivities were allowed to develop in the direction that the profit

motive would take it, whereas in the continent mercantilist restrictions were

maintained.

• Technological Revolution

• England was greatly advanced in science and technology.
• The traditional handicraft-based production system of British was unable to meet

this growing demand as a result of which British manufacturers had to use

machinesinproductionprocess.Thus,inthefacilitationof Britishindustrialisation,

new technologies definitely played a significant role.

• For example, technologies like spinning jenny, water frame, power loom, the use

of coke for melting iron etc. The new technologies gave support to production.

• Textile Industry:

▪ John Key invented flying shuttle, 1733

▪ James Hargreaves invented Spinning Jenny, 1764

▪ Richard Arkwright invented Water Frame, 1769

▪ Samuel Crompton invented Spinning Mule, 1779

▪ Edward Cartwright invented Power-loom, 1785

• Other fields:

▪ John Dudley and Henry Cort invented a new method of melting iron with

the help of coal.

▪ Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp

▪ James Watt invented steam engine, 1776

▪ James Stephenson invented locomotive, 1814

• In Britain, one special factor was a wider social acceptance of these new

technologies.

Additionally, Britain provided the political, institutional, legal and socio-cultural foundations

that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the Industrial Revolution.

Carlo M.Cipollahasremarked that Britainexperienced the Industrial Revolutionfirst because

the favourable social and political structures, mental attitudes, capitalist practices and

bourgeoisie values had been developed.

• Politico-Administrative Factors: The British government enthusiastically supported its

capitalist class.

• The Glorious Revolution (1688) replaced the traditional absolute monarchy of

Britain with constitutional monarchy. The empowered British parliament enacted

several laws in accordance with the changing needs of time.

• The British citizens enjoyed many rights.

▪ They could think freely as a result of which a large number of scientific

inventions took place in Britain.

▪ Secure property rights and a legal framework protected innovation and

entrepreneurship, which was crucial for the Industrial Revolution to take

place.

• Despite British participation in continental conflicts, an environment of peace and

stability prevailed in Britain. The British cities were never attacked whereas in

continental Europe, the cities used to suffer continuous devastations during war

and battles.

• Britain had an extensive colonial empire which could work as a supplier of cheap

raw materials and consumer of finished good.

• Socio-cultural factors

• The socio-cultural environment in Britain was far more stable when compared

with the countries of continental Europe, Asia.

• Thepresenceofaclassofentrepreneurswhotookinvestmentrisksalsofacilitated

the commencement of IR.

• Thepracticalbentofmind for Britishresearchersresultedintheinventionof those

machines which could find immediate application the availability of these

machines facilitated the commencement of IR.

• Britainwitnessedrapidpopulation growthduringfirsthalfof 18 th century,thereby

the demand of manufactured goods increased quite significantly.

• Religious factors

• Britain was predominantly a protestant nation. The ethics of Protestantism also

contributed to the success of British IR. In his essay "The Protestant Ethic and the

Spirit of Capitalism," Max Weber argued that Protestantism, particularly

Calvinism,played acrucial roleinthedevelopmentofcapitalism andthe Industrial

Revolution.

• Calvinist beliefs, such as the importance of economic rationalism, hard work,

thrift, accumulation of wealth, and self-discipline, created a culture that was

conducive to the development of capitalism.

• Weber also argued that the Protestant emphasis on individual salvation led to a

new wayof thinking about the world. In Protestant societies, people believed that

theycould achieve salvation throughtheirown hard workandpiety.Thisnew way

of thinking led to a more individualistic and achievement-oriented culture, which

was essential for the development of capitalism.

▪ It encourages learning because every protestant has to read his bible

himself to earn religious merit.

Features of the First and Second Industrial Revolution in Britain

First Phase Second Phase

1760 s to 1830 s 1840 s to early 20 th century

• Mechanization of textile production

(spinning jenny, power loom)

• Development of early factory-based

mass production system

• Also, ironmaking, coal mining
• Steam engine (James Watt)
• Transportation (railroads network,

automobiles based on IC Engine)

• Communication (telegraph, telephone)
• Electricity generation and distribution
• Heavy industry (steel and chemicals)
• Labour intensive • Capital intensive
• Restricted to England • Impact felt all over Europe

First Industrialization:

Eric Hobsbawm: 'Whoever says Industrial Revolution says cotton.'

• Cotton was the main pillar of the first phase of industrialization. It expressed a new form

of society-industrial capitalism, based on a new form of production: the factory.

• Technological Progress: The three major inventions revolutionized and

mechanized the cotton industry.

▪ James Hargreave's spinning jenny.

▪ Richard Arkwright's waterframe.

▪ Samuel Crompton's spinning mule.

• Factory Production: The organization of textiles industry was transformed.

▪ Domestic handicraft manufacturing → capitalist factory industry.

▪ Spinning began to be concentrated hereafter in factories and weavers

could now rely on constant supplies of yarn.

▪ The mechanized cotton spinningpowered bywater or steamincreased the

production of a worker by a factor of 1000. The power loom increased

production by a factor of 40.

▪ Production for mass market became possible.

• Labour:

▪ The cotton textiles industry was more labour intensive. But, as P. Deane

suggests,thatthemostimportantreasonforitsabilitytoremainprofitable

was the continuous flow of cheap labour.

• Market:

▪ The final product was not so new that it had to create its own demand

through changing tastes. Indian calicoes and muslins had long been in

active demand in the markets served by British merchants.

• Spectacularly rapid progress: Within 25 years, cotton manufacturing became one

of the most significant industries in England.

▪ 1802: 4-5% Gdp, 1812: 7-8% Gdp

Shift to the Second industrialization:

• Huge capital accumulation from the first Industrial Revolution in search of new avenues

for investment. Thus, attraction of heavy capital goods industries.

• The growing demand for capital goods (iron, coal, transport, railroad etc) prepared the

ground for the second phase of the Industrial Revolution.

(1) Iron/Steel Industry

Technological transformation by 1800 s but the switch-over from cotton to iron took place

most distinctly from the 1840 s.

• Iron was primarily a producer's good rather than a consumer item.

• By 1790 s, iron began to be used widely in construction work.
• By 1840 s, the increased demand from railroads, locomotives, machinery etc (now

formed the core of industrialization)

• It helped other industrial sectors through "backward and forward linkages" (Rostow).

• Backward linkages: Demand for raw materials, e.g. mining and the processing of

iron ore.

• Forward linkages: Supply for railways, armaments, telegraph poles, and various

precision tools etc.

(2) Railway Industry

• Railway construction at home

• Two extraordinary bursts of concentrated investment

▪ Little railways mania of 1835-7

▪ Gigantic railway mania of 1845-70.

• 1830-50: approximately 6,000 miles of railways were opened in Britain.

• By 1870 s, it led to worldwide economic activity. Construction of railways abroad using

British capital, materials, and equipment.

• Railways helped to shape a new world economy in which Britain for manyyears lay at the

centre.

Additional features:

• Indigenous innovations powered British IR: Most of the machines used in the production

process were invented indigenously.

• Quality consciousness was dominant among British manufacturer they tried to produce

goods of highest quality.

• Production of white (consumer) goods was another important feature of British IR.
• It was guided by capitalism.

• The factories were privately owned, and profit orientation was dominant.
• The role of market forces was very important. The doctrine of laissez faire guided

British IR.

• The role of the state was that of a facilitator. There was no important direct role

of the state in industrialization.

• Theprocessofindustrializationin Britainwaslongdrawnout.Ittookmorethan 150 years

for Britain IR to reach to climax.

Impact of British Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a transformative event that had a profound impact on British

economy, polity, society as well as environment. It transformed the country from a

predominantly agrarian society to a leading industrial power.

According to some historians, the net impact was positive since it led to economic growth,

increased productivity, and a higher standard of living for many people. Another perspective

is that it primarily led to negative consequences like exploitation of workers, urban squalor,

pollution,anderosionoftraditionalsocialvalues.Thisperspectiveemphasizesthehumancost

of industrialization A more nuanced perspective acknowledges the economic benefits, but

also counts the social and environmental costs. It is also important to understand that the

impact of industrialization was not evenly distributed. Some people benefited more from

industrialization than others.

(A) Economic Impact:

The Industrial Revolution brought about significant economic growth, contributing to the

overall prosperity of the nation.

• Mass production led to lower prices and increased availability, which benefited

consumers and stimulated economic growth.

• Growth of transportation and communication made it easier to move goods and people

and helped to boost trade.

• Increased production, trade, and the accumulation of wealth led to a dramatic increase

in productivity, GDP and living standards for many people.

• Real GDP per capita in Britain increased by over 500% between 1760 and 1860.

• Development of new industries, such as textiles, ironmaking, and coal mining created

new jobs.

• Coal mining specifically generated employment in huge numbers.
• Withthat,therewasashiftinoccupationalstructure:Theshare ofthepopulation

employed in manufacturing increased from about 10% in 1760 to over 40% in

1860.

• With the development of heavy goods industries, a new class of skilled workers

and mechanics was born.

• The heavy goods industries were capital intensive in character, and this led to the

tendency to form joint stock companies to avoid individual risk.

• Technological Diffusion: Innovations developed during the Industrial Revolution spread

to other countries, contributing to global industrialization and economic growth.

• Afterthe Industrial Revolution,Britainemergedtobe the firstindustrialised nation inthe

world.

• The transport network between the different countries of Europe was

strengthened by the coming of railways and steamships. International trade

reached new heights and England became the 'workshop of the world'.

• British capital found its way to other countries of the world and British capitalists

began to invest their capital and technical knowledge in different corners of the

globe.

• Now it gave a call for free-trade policy. Britain was the earliest nation to adopt

free-trade policy in 1846.

• Industrialization facilitated Britain's global dominance as an economic and

colonial power.

• Income Inequality:

• The advanced technology of the Industrial Revolution solved the problem of

production. It generated new wealth in society. But this new wealth went chiefly

in one direction: to the purses of an elite minority. Thus, the problem of

distributionremained (rather accentuated) andthe gulfbetweentherichand the

poor widened during this final phase of the Industrial Revolution.

• It also created a series of booms and busts (business cycles). Such business cycles

also led to a growing disparity in wealth.

(B) Social Impact:

• Urbanization:

• Citiesexperiencedrapidpopulationgrowthaspeoplemovedfromthecountryside

to work in urban-factories. This led to the emergence of crowded, often squalid,

urban living conditions.

▪ 1801: 10% → 1851: 50% → 1901: 80%

▪ Major industrial cities like Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds Birmingham, and

Sheffield experienced explosive population growth.

• Urban poverty: Rapid growth of cities led to issues of poverty, congestion, and

filth. Housing and sanitation were often inadequate, leading to disease and

squalor.

• Keywords: social dislocation, loss of community, anonymity, individualistic

existence.

• Shift in socio-cultural values:

• Traditional agrarian values of rural life, community, and craftsmanship began to

give way to industrial values of efficiency, profit, and competition.

• People craved material happiness.
• Attraction towards gross materialism resulted in the decline in human

compassion i.e., the sensitivity towards other individuals of his own group

decreased.

• Class Structure: The Industrial Revolution changed Britain's national character and

reshaped the social hierarchy. The traditional aristocracy's power waned as the industrial

bourgeoisie (middle class)gainedprominence.The industrialworking class,characterized

by factory laborers, emerged as a distinct and large social group. The emergence of the

new classes created a new base for change.

• Middle class: entrepreneurs, factory owners, and professionals

▪ The middle class was both a beneficiary and a victim of industrialization.

They embraced the free market and the importance of hard work and

individual initiative, but they also struggled with the social and economic

problems, such as poverty and inequality.

• Industrialisation brought new problems of exploitation in the factory and mines.

▪ Manufacturing processes became increasingly specialized, with workers

focusing on specific tasks within the production line. This division of labor

improved efficiencybut often ledto monotonousand dehumanizingwork

conditions.

• Chang in nature of work and leisure time: On farms, the seasons

and hours of daylight regulated the time for work, but in factories,

work is regulated by the clock. Railroads and shipping timetables

further required the standardization of time.

• Earlier, artisans worked for "price," which was linked to what they

produced. In the factory, workers were paid a "wage" according to

the number of hours.

• Thus, work was increasingly regimented. Factory workers were as

interchangeable as the parts that they made.

▪ Harsh life:

• Appalling/Inhumane factory condition: Low wages, child labor,

women exploitation, 16 long hours, unsanitary working conditions.

• Miners had to live in much harsher conditions.

• Housing problems: Overcrowded, unsanitary, without proper

windows, thus inhaling smog from chimneys, spread of disease like

cholera.

• Poverty and malnutrition
• High amount of child mortality

• In Lancashire and Manchester, the life expectancy was

around 17-20 years…!

▪ Absence of Labor Rights:

• During the early stages, there were no labor laws or protections.
• Workers had little to no bargaining power and were often subject

to arbitrary treatment by employers.

• The formation of labor unions was met with resistance.
• Education and Social Mobility: The need for a skilled workforce led to advancements in

education.

• Technical schools and universities were established to train engineers and

managers. This contributed to some degree of social mobility, allowing individuals

to rise in social and economic status through education and merit.

• Impact on Family Life and Gender Roles:

• Change in family structure:

▪ Steven King in "Working-Class Families in the Industrial Revolution"

highlighted how the Industrial Revolution disrupted traditional family

structures. With more family members entering the workforce, there was

a shift away from extended family working together on the farm and

created nuclear families. This separation profoundly impacted family

cohesion.

• Gender roles evolved:

▪ Patricia Branca, in "Silent Sisterhood," argues that women's labor in

factories and mills challenged traditional gender norms, disrupted family

roles and provided them with a degree of economic independence.

▪ On the other hand, Barbara Ehrenreich has argued that the Industrial

Revolution reinforced gender roles. Women's roles were increasingly

defined by their responsibilities within the home, as the "cult of

domesticity" emerged, emphasizing women's role as caregivers and

homemakers.

• Influenced marriage patterns: Urban migration/employments often delayed

marriage (secure job, housing).

• The separation of parents and children due to work and the long hours spent in

factories altered child rearing practices and affected emotional bonds between

parents and children.

• Religion: Many working-class people turned to new religious movements, such as

Methodism, which offered a sense of community and support.

(C) Cultural/Artistic Responses:

Industrial Revolution inspired various cultural responses. Literature, art, and music of the era

often reflected the challenges and contradictions of industrialization.

• The Romanticmovementemergedinpartasareactionagainstthedehumanizingaspects

of industrialization.

• Romantic British poets from Wordsworth to John Keats expressed a sense of

nostalgia towards nature.

• Emergence of Social Novel

• Itarosein Englandduring the 1830 sasareactiontosocio-politico-economicissues

due to rapid industrialization. It was a means of commenting on abuses of

government/industry and the suffering of the poor. It was directed at the middle

class to help create sympathy and promote change.

• E.g. Thomas Carlyle, Charles Dickens (eg Olivet Twist, Hard Times), Thomas Hardy,

Benjamin Disraeli (Sybil) etc.

• Impact on Architecture:

• The design and construction of buildings evolved to accommodate the needs of

industry and urban living.

• The builtenvironmentbegan toreflect the technological andfunctional aspectsof

the industrial era, shaping the urban cultural landscape.

• Sports: There was a rise in new sports, such as football (soccer) and cricket. These sports

were popular with the working class and helped to promote a sense of national identity.

• Music and theater (popular culture): There developed new forms of entertainment in

music and theater, such as popular music and melodrama. These were popular with the

working class.

(D) Environmental Impact:

The rapid industrialization had detrimental environmental consequences.

• Pollution from factories and coal-burning power plants contributed to air and water

pollution.

• Deforestation and resource depletion were common due to increased demand for raw

materials.

• Long term - climate change

(E) Political Impact:

Political Transformation: Industrialization had a significant impact on the political landscape.

It contributed to the rise of liberalism and the demand for political reforms.

• It gave rise to various social and political movements.

• The social conscience of England was jolted by the writings of Charles Dickens as

well as the rise of trade unions. Trade unions played a leading role in the fight for

better working conditions and wages.

• Some Social Reformers

▪ One of the most prominent social reformers of the time was Edwin

Chadwick, whose publichealth advocacy improved sanitation and working

conditions. He was instrumental in the passage of the Public Health Act of

1848, which required local governments to provide clean water and

sanitation to their residents.

▪ Robert Owen was a factory owner who believed that workers should be

treated fairly.

• He experimented with new factory management techniques that

improved working conditions and productivity.

• He founded a number of cooperative communities where workers

could own their own businesses and share in the profits.

• There was also the growth of social movements such as the Chartist movement.
• The increasing inequality also led to the growth of socialism. It is a critique of

capitalism and attempts to put an end to the co-existence of extremes of wealth.

• Initially the government neglected the issues, but soon, it was compelled to legislate for

tackling the situation and uplifting worker conditions, addressing child labor, workplace

safety, and the working hours of laborers.

• The Reform Acts of the 19 th century expanded suffrage and political

representation.

• Labour Legislation:

▪ Factory Acts 1833, 1842

▪ Mining Act of 1842

▪ Ten Hours Act 1847

• Emergence of welfare state: Soon, the state began to drop the old idea of laissez-

faire and to extend its reach into economic and social affairs. It assumed new

responsibilities including the welfare of women and children with the notable

development of an elevation of the status of women.

• Imperialism: Industrialization also drove Britain's imperialistic ambitions.

• The British Empire expanded to secure resources,markets, and strategic locations

to support industrialization and economic growth.

• Soon, other industrialized European nations turned their eyes to the non-

European world and the race to parcel out the whole world into colonies and

spheres of influence began. This imperialism later became aggressive and

indirectly led to the First World War.

Reformers, Free Traders, Chartists

UPSC CSE PYQs

British liberalism in 19 th century, Free Traders

• Write a critical note on: Effect of British liberalism on the social or economic life of the

people of England. [1981, 20 Marks]

• Account for the growth of Liberalism in Britain in the nineteenth century. How far did it

influence the contemporary social and economic issues in the country? [1984, 60

Marks]

• "The arguments of the free traders were a curious mixture of economic hard-

headedness, social benevolence, cosmopolitan idealism and class prejudice." Critically

examine. [2019, 10 Marks]

Reforms Act 1832

• "Though reform was inevitable, the Act (1832) by which it was accomplished was open

to grave criticism." Comment. [2005, 20 Marks]

• "Change in Britain came comparatively peacefully through democratic process in the

first half of the nineteenth century and a model of a functioning democracy through

ballot box was successfully put in place." Elaborate. [2013, 25 Marks]

• "… the passing of the 'Reform Act' marked the real beginning of modern party

organization in England… In a real sense, the present political system of England dates

from 1832." Critically examine. [2014, 10 Marks]

• 'The first Reformation Act (1832) occupies a significant place in the constitutional

development of Britain.' Critically examine. [2022, 10 m]

Chartists

• Review the background of the Chartist Movement. Despite its failure how had their

demands been met in the succeeding years? [2004, 60 Marks]

• "The roots of Chartism are partly political and partly economic." Elaborate. [2011, 20

Marks]

• "The roots of the Chartist movement in Great Britain were partly political and partly

economic." Critically examine. [2017, 10 Marks]

• The Chartist Movement failed to achieve its stated objective, but succeeded in seeding

the idea that a representative democracy should include all citizens. Critically examine.

[2021, 10 Marks]

• "The Chartist Movementnotonlyfulfilledsomeofthedemandsofthemiddle class,but

its ramifications were felt among the working class and the colonies as well." [2023, 10

Marks]

Section A: British Liberalism and Middle-Class Politics

Factors behind rise of liberalism:

• Impact of Enlightenment ideas of the 18 th century:

• John Lock, Adam Smith: emphasized individual rights, the rule of law, and the

importance of limited government.

• Industrial Revolution:

• It led to the rise of a new middle class which supported liberal ideas, such as

individual liberty and free trade.

• The Reform Act of 1832

• It expanded the franchise and gave middle class a say in government. This middle

class supported liberal candidates and policies.

• Economic liberalism

• Figures like David Ricardo, Malthus, Richard Cobden were influential proponents

of free trade.

• Utilitarianism: Benthal and Mill argued that individuals should be free to live their lives as

they see fit, without interference from the government. They also supported government

role in promoting social and economic justice.

Liberals supported several reforms:

• Free trade: Liberals believed in free trade which benefited the consumers and workers,

as it led to lower prices and more job opportunities.

• The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846

• Parliamentary reform: Liberals supported the process of making Parliament more

representative. They believed that everyone should have a say in government, regardless

of their wealth or social class.

• The Great Reform Act of 1832
• Leading role in the campaigns for women's suffrage by the end of the century.

• Individual rights and civil liberties: This included campaigns for religious freedom, the

abolition of slavery, and the expansion of personal freedoms.

• Catholic Emancipation of 1790 s
• Free speech and Freedom of Press
• Prison Reforms
• Slavery Abolition

• Civic and Municipal Reforms:

• Municipal Corporations Act, 1835
• The Public Health Act of 1848
• The Education Act of 1870

• Social reform: Liberals believed that the government should play a role in promoting

social justice. They supported social reform for the improvement of working conditions.

• The Factory Act of 1833

Thus, liberalism played a major role in shaping the contemporary social and economic

landscape of Britain and helped to create a more democratic, free, and prosperous society.

Some Important Economic Liberal Thinkers

• Adam Smith

• Smith argued that the best way to promote economic growth was to let the free

market operate without government interference. The pursuit of individual self-

interest (invisible hand)in competitivemarketwould lead to the greatest good for

society.

• The middle-class entrepreneurs embraced Smith's ideas about individualism,

competition, and free trade.

The Economists of Capitalism Smith's basic ideas were supported by British economists

Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo. Like Smith, they believed that natural laws governed

economic life. Their important ideas were the foundation of laissez-faire capitalism.

• Thomas Malthus

• Malthus argued that the human population would tend to grow faster than the

food supply, leading to widespread poverty and famine. Without wars and

epidemics to kill off the extra people, most were destined to be poor and

miserable.

• The middle class, concerned about social unrest by a growing poor workers,

embraced Malthus's ideas about the need to limit population growth and family

planning.

• Malthus also justified the exploitation of the working class to some extent, which

helped reduce middle-class guilt.

▪ It contributed to the belief that poverty was an unavoidable consequence

of overpopulation.

• Jeremy Bentham (father of utilitarianism)

• Bentham believed that the best way to promote happiness was to maximize

pleasure and minimize pain (greatest good for greatest number).

• Utilitarianism aligned with middle-class values of rationality, efficiency, and

individual self-interest.Itemphasizedthepursuitofpleasure andtheavoidance of

pain as the basis for ethical decision-making.

• The middle class embraced utilitarian ideas at it supported social reform to

improve the lives of the working class and helped in creation of just and equitable

society.

• David Ricardo

• Iron Law of Wages: Wages tend to settle at a subsistence level, just enough to

maintain the worker and their family at a basic standard of living. Any increase in

wages above this level would lead to increased population growth, which, in turn,

would drive wages back down to the subsistence level.

• It suggested that workers' efforts to secure higher wages might be temporary, as

any gains could be offset by increased population growth and a subsequent

decline in wages.

Laissez-faire thinkers such as Smith, Malthus, and Ricardo opposed government efforts to

help poor workers. They thought that creating minimum wage laws and better working

conditions would upset the free market system, lower profits, and undermine the production

of wealth in society.

Great Reform Act, 1832

"But the age of chivalry is gone. That of sophisters, economists, and calculators has

succeeded; and the glory of Europe is extinguished forever."

• Edmund Burke.

Causes:

The circumstances leading to enactment of the Reform Act were created by impact of

industrial revolution.

• Population shift → Rotten Boroughs and Unequal Representation:

• The IR resulted in the vast urban migration whereby many of the existing

constituenciesgotdepopulatedwhichcontinuedtoenjoyrepresentationin British

parliament.

• On the other hand, the newly expanding industrial towns had no/least

representation in British parliament. Thus, there was a need for redistribution of

parliamentary constituencies.

• Emerging classes:

• The British parliament was under the monopoly of nobles & clergymen. The new

classes created by IR (capitalist & working class) did not have a representation in

British parliament.

• The right to vote was based on property qualifications. There was a need to

readjust this qualification so that the new classes could get representation in

British parliament.

• Memory of the French Revolution:

• The memory of the French Revolution and the fear of similar upheaval in Britain

served as a catalyst for political reform. Some in the government believed that

reforming the electoral system would help maintain social stability.

• Political Pressure:

• There was growing popular pressure for reform in the years leading up to the

Reform Act of 1832. This pressure was manifested in the form of mass

demonstrations, petitions, and other forms of political activism. The government

realized that it could no longer ignore the demands for reform without risking a

revolution.

Provisions of the Reform:

• Delimitation:

• Constituencies with less than 2000 population were deprived of representation.
• Constituencies with 2000-5000 population were allowed one seat in parliament.
• It freed 143 seats which were allotted to unrepresented towns and cities.

• Voting qualifications: The property qualifications for voting rights readjusted.

• In borough, a person 10 pounds /annum tax was given right to vote.
• In rural areas this amount was fixed as 5 pounds for peasant proprietors and 2

pounds for lease holders.

• It providedthat all thosecitizenswhose names were included in electoral rolls at the time

of announcement of elections shall have rights to vote.

Significance:

The Reform Act of 1832 was a landmark piece of legislation that had a profound impact on

British politics and society.

• The Act symbolized Britain's ability to adapt its constitutional framework to changing

societal and political dynamics. It marked a shift from a more aristocratic and exclusive

system to a more inclusive parliament and representative modern democracy.

• Empowered Middle Class:Itshatteredthemonopolyofnoblesandclergymen over British

parliament. It paved the way for entry of middle class in British politics. Now, the middle

class gained much greater say in government.

• The middle class was the driving force behind the Industrial Revolution. By giving

the middle class a greater say in government, the Reform Act helped to create a

more favorable environment for economic growth and development. This led to a

number of reforms in the following years, such as the abolition of the Corn Laws

and the introduction of free trade.

• This emerging middle class emphasized on

colonisation, and severance from European

conflicts. Thus, the British government adopted a

policy of 'splendid isolation' in continental affairs

and concentrated on expansion of its dominance

in India.

• Expansion of electorate: The number of voters doubled.

(3.6 L to 6.5 L)

• Reduction of rottenboroughs: Discrepanciesprevailing in

thedistribution of constituencies wereremovedto a large

extent. Thus, it eliminated unfair representation and

made the parliament more representative of the industrial towns.

• Major Shakeup: Almost a third of the existing seats were redistributed to areas

that had grown in population.

• Realignment of political parties: The Whigs, who supported reform, gained more

prominence, while the Tories were divided over the issue. This realignment laid the

foundation for the modern political party system in Britain.

• Stability:Ittriedtoaddresssocialandpoliticaldiscontent.Itreducedtheriskofrevolution

and maintained political stability in Britain.

• Established the reformist tradition: Similar reforms acts were enacted 1867, 1884, 1911

& 1928. Thus, it created precedent which eventually led to universal male suffrage.

Impact of the Reform Act of 1832 on the party politics/organization in Britain

Prior to the Reform Act, British politics was dominated by a

small number of wealthy landowners and aristocrats. These

individuals were able to control the outcome of elections by

buying votes and intimidating voters.

The Reform Act of 1832 expanded the franchise, which led to a

more democratic and competitive political system.

This created a need for political parties to develop more

sophisticated organizations in order to mobilize voters and win

elections.Inresponseto the Reform Act,thetwomajor political

parties in Britain, the Whigs and the Tories, began to develop

more modern party organizations. They established local party

branches, held party conventions, and developed party platforms. They also began to use

more sophisticated techniques to campaign for votes, such as distributing leaflets and

holding public rallies.

The Act led to the emergence of political leaders such as Robert Peel and Lord Melbourne,

who played pivotal roles in shaping the early Conservative and Liberal parties. Party

organizations began to develop with clear platforms and ideologies.

Limitations:

• Continued unequal representation:

• Whilethe Acteliminated some rottenboroughs,itdidnotcompletelyeliminateall

forms of unequal representation.

• Despite some redistribution of seats, urban areas were still underrepresented

comparedtotheirpopulationsize.Thisurban-ruraldividepersistedandcontinued

to affect the political landscape.

• There was no provision of secret ballot.

• It was done openly, which meant that voters could be subject to intimidation or

pressure from employers, landlords, or others in positions of authority.

• Limited franchise:

• Property qualifications.
• The lower middle class, the artisans, and the industrial workers got no

representation in the parliament.

• Women were excluded.

• The Actdidnotaddresstheneedforreformin the Houseof Lords,whichremainedlargely

unchanged and continued to wield significant political power.

• Thus, the monopoly of nobles and clergymen continued in the house of lords.
• This also led to ongoing disputes between the two houses.

• The Act did not directly address broader social and economic inequalities in society.

While it extended political rights, it did not significantly impact broader issues of wealth

and class disparities.

Anti-Corn Law League and Free Traders (1815-46)

• Inthelate 18th andearly 19th centuries,Britainfollowedaprotectionisteconomic policy.

This period was marked by high tariffs, trade restrictions, and the Navigation Acts, which

aimed to protect British industries and maintain control over colonial trade.

• For example, the Corn Laws were a series of tariffs and trade restrictions on imported

grains in the United Kingdom from 1815 to 1846.

• The laws were intended to protect English farmers from cheap foreign imports of

grain.Theyraisedthepriceofcorn,whichincreasedfoodcostsandpoverty among

the working class. They were a deeply divisive issue in the first half of the

nineteenth century.

Free Trade Advocacy: Anti-Corn Law League

• In the early 19 th century, a group of reformers and political economists, including David

Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, and Richard Cobden, emerged as advocates of free trade.

• The Corn Laws became a focal point for the free trade movement.

• The Anti-Corn Law League, founded in 1838 by Richard Cobden and John Bright,

campaigned vigorously for the repeal of the protectionist laws.

▪ The laws supported by the landed aristocracy and agricultural interests,

benefitted the wealthy at the expense of the poor, consumers and

workers.

▪ They were preventing British manufacturers from competing in the global

market.

▪ The League'seconomicargumentwasthatfreetradewouldleadtogreater

economic efficiency, prosperity for all, individual liberty, and international

peace.

• Campaign: It was able to mobilize public support.

▪ This grassroots mobilization was key to its success.

• It published pamphlets and gave speeches.
• It organized meetings, rallies, and campaigns to educate public

opinion.

▪ They also lobbied Parliament and tried to persuade MPs to support repeal.

▪ The Economist newspaper became the mouthpiece of the free-trade

advocacy.

• Repeal of the Corn Laws and shift to Free Trade

• In 1846, under the leadership of Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel, the British

government repealed the Corn Laws.

• This marked a significant victory for the free trade movement. It signaled a shift

away from protectionism towards free trade principles.

• It led to a decrease in the price of food, which benefited British consumers. It also

led to an increase in exports, which benefited British manufacturers.

• It was followed by a series of additional free trade measures, including reductions

in tariffs and the gradual opening of British markets to foreign goods. This period

of free tradepolicies isassociated with economicgrowth and the expansion ofthe

British Empire's global trade networks.

Section B: Working Class Movement in Britain

As England was the first country in the world to experience the Industrial Revolution, the

English working class were the first to experience the hardships of industrialization.

Advocates of laissez-faire economics maintained that it was not the duty of the government

to intervene between the employers and employees. In 1799, the Combination Act was

passed prohibiting the formation of trade unions in England.

A. The Luddite Movement (1811-16)

• It arose in response to rapid industrialization. Asmachines were replacing skilled artisans,

there were job losses. The Luddites were primarily skilled workers who saw machinery as

athreattotheirlivelihoods.Theystarteddestroyingmachinesbelievingthatitwouldhelp

protect their jobs.

• Luddites engaged in acts of organized machine-breaking/sabotage in textile mills and

factories.

• It began in the vicinity of Nottingham toward the end of 1811 and in the next year

spread to Yorkshire, Lancashire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire.

• Mill and factory owners took to shooting protesters. The British government responded

with repressive measures, deploying troops to suppress the movement and passing laws

that made machine-breaking a capital offense. In 1813, several Luddites were hanged for

their crimes.

• Comment:

• Luddites are today seen as symbols of resistance to technological change and as

early defenders of workers' rights. However, they were unable to prevent the

broader adoption of machinery and factory-based production.

• Although the Luddite Movement was crushed by the authorities, it paved the way

for the next stage of the working-class agitation in England.

▪ It was an essential stage on the road towards a working-class

consciousness. It raised awareness of the issues and contributed to the

broader labor movement and the development of trade unions in the 19 th

century.

▪ Workers began organizing to advocate for better working conditions,

higher wages, and job security.

B. Post-Napoleonic Unrest (1815-1825)

• Causes

• There was an acute economic slump (post-Napoleonic depression).
• It was accompanied by chronic unemployment and harvest failure.
• The overall impact was worsened by the Corn Laws (1815), which kept the price

of bread high by prohibiting the importation of cheap grains.

• Popular Agitation and Riots

• There was mass rioting throughout Britain.
• Many working class papers started being published and received by a wide

audience.

• This outbreak of lawlessness led to a government crackdown on agitation in 1817

known as the Gagging Acts, a suspension of habeas corpus (1816).

• Blanketeers March (1817)

• In protest ofthe Gagging Acts, aswell asthe poor workingconditions in the textile

industry, workers in Manchester attempted to march on London to deliver

petitions in a demonstration.

• The Blanketeers, named after the blankets they brought to sleep on the roadside

during their journey, were intercepted, with most participants either arrested or

chased off by the British military. The march was broken up violently and its

leaders imprisoned.

• Political Reform Movement

• Now, reformers identified parliamentary reform as the solution and a mass

campaign to petition parliament for manhood suffrage began.

• Political demonstrations increased in popularity throughout industrial Britain. It

culminated in an incident in Manchester, Peterloo Massacre (1819)

▪ Themountedunitsattackedthecrowdof 80,000,resultedin 18 deathsand

up to 500 injuries.

▪ The British government responded with draconian measures known asthe

Six Acts that allowed government searches, prohibited large assemblies,

and punished anti-government publications.

• Soon, a need was felt to reform the existing combination laws against trade laws.

▪ The Combination Act of 1824 finally repealed all previous statutes

concerning trade unions and declared that trade unions would no longer

be treated as illegal.

▪ The legality of the working class unions was further enhanced by the

Combination Act of 1825.

• Now, the government began to recognize the need to address labor grievances

and allow for peaceful labor organizing.

Early Trade Unionism

• This legislation brought trade unions into legal existence.

• Until then, trade unions had been operating secretly but hereafter, they were

allowed to negotiate openly with the employers.

• These early unions, often limited to skilled workers, focused on issues like wages,

working hours, and apprenticeship standards.

• By the 1830 s, there were hundreds of trade unions in Britain.

• The early phase of trade unionism did not bring much relief for the workers.

• They still operated within a restrictive legal framework. Courts often deemed

strikes illegal, and union activity was closely scrutinized. There was hostility from

the employers as well.

• Trade unionism in this period was often fragmented, with numerous small,

specialized unions representing specific trades or industries. Coordination and

collective action across different sectors were limited.

▪ Failed attempt to set up national general union: Robert Owen's Grand

National Consolidated Trades Union in 1834.

• Early Trade unionists contributed to the development of Chartist demands for political

reform. The Chartists saw trade unions as an important tool for organizing and mobilizing

the working class.

C. Owenism (1820 s, 1830 s)

• Owenism was a social and economic movement founded by Robert Owen, who was a

British textile manufacturer.

• Ideas and writing:

• He believed that socio-economic problems due to the Industrial revolution could

be solved by creating a new social system based on cooperation and equality. He

emphasized importance of improving working conditions and education for

workers.

• Owen'swritingsandexperimentscontributedtothedevelopmentofearlysocialist

thought. His work laid the intellectual foundation for cooperative socialism and

utopian socialism, which influenced later socialist thinkers.

• Initiatives

• Robert Owen put manyof his ideas into practice at the New Lanark cotton mills in

Scotland. He transformed New Lanark into a model industrial community,

introducingprogressivelaborpractices,educationforchildren,andsocialreforms.

• Owen established a number of experimental communities, including New

Harmony in Indiana. These experiments aimed to create self-sustaining,

cooperative communities based on his principles. However, these communities

couldn't sustain and were ultimately unsuccessful.

• Owenism gained popularity in Britain and the United States in the 1820 s and 1830 s but

declined by the late 1830 s. This was due to the failure of the Owenite communities and

the rise of other socialist movements.

• However, Owenism had a significant impact on the development of the workers'

movement. His ideas had a lasting impact on the development of socialist thought, labor

movements, and the concept of workers' rights. His emphasis on the importance of

education,fairlaborpractices,andcooperationleftalastinglegacyinthebroadercontext

of social reform and socialism.

D. Chartist Movement

"The Chartists were pioneers of democracy. They fought for the right of all men to have a

say in how they were governed." - Eric Hobsbawm

The Chartist movement was the first mass

movement for parliamentary reforms driven

entirely by the industrial workers and was largely

inspired by the evolving theories of socialism.

From 1820 s onwards, workers developed their

own organization and leadership. By the end of

1830 s, they started a campaign called Chartist

movement. It was a peaceful movement for

political demands. At a time when the right to

vote was severely limited, the Charter demanded

the vote for all men. There were, in all, six

demands:

• A vote for every man 21 years of age, of

sound mind, and not undergoing punishment

for crime.

• Secret ballots.
• No property qualification for Members of

Parliament.

• Payment to MPs.
• Equal size constituencies.
• Annual parliaments.

It rapidly gathered support from industrial workers in the North of England, Wales, and

Scotland.Bythe 1840 s, ithad largelylostitsmiddle-classsupportandbe come aworkingclass

political movement.

Chartists were not the first to demand these things. However, it was in 1830 s that the

movement received massive public support. Reasons for the rise:

• Economic Factors:

• Hard times

▪ Severe economic depression in 1840 s

▪ Plight ofworkers: Lowwages, labourexploitation, unemployment,squalid

urbanization

Thomas Carlyle's essay Chartism

(1839):

• What means this bitter discontent

of the Working Classes? Whence

comes it, whither goes it? Above all,

at what price, on what terms, will it

probably consent to depart from us

and die into rest? These are

questions.

• Carlyle, who had studied

extensivelythecausesof the French

Revolution, was apprehensive

about England's future. He

presented Chartism as a symptom

of a disease that affected England.

Theeffectofitcouldbearevolution

if the government did not improve

the living conditions of the

labouring classes. He argued the

need for a more profound reform.

▪ Hungry Forties: Potato famine, food shortages

• People were furious over the new Poor Law which established the workhouse

system.

• Political Factors:

• Idea of popular sovereignty: The English Revolution gave rise to the idea of

popular sovereignty which inspired the Chartists to demand political reforms.

• Lack of political representation: Many working people had supported the

campaign that resulted in the 1832 Reform Act in the belief that this would be a

first step towards wider democracy. They were angry at the Whig government's

failure to honour its political debts.

• The influence of political movements like the Radicals and the Reformers who

advocated for political reform.

• Influence of European Revolutions:

▪ The European revolutions like July Revolution in France (1830) influenced

the political consciousness in England and fueled demands for greater

political rights.

• This was also a time when, following the repeal of the anti-trade union

Combination Acts, working people were becoming more confident in forming

their own organisations.

The Chartist movementwas a challenge to the rising middle class whichhad gained the most

by the Act of 1832, and as such the parliament rejected the petition summarily.

Important leaders: Feargus O'Connor, John Collins, William Lovett

Three Upsurges:

There followed certain abortive attempts at

armed uprising also, but these were quickly

suppressed. The leaders of the movement

were arrested and sentenced to short prison

terms, and a few of them were also exiled.

Thereafter, for more than a decade the

Chartist leaders kept agitating and even

threatened violence, but no serious unrest took place. It remained largely peaceful.

• 1839 - first Chartists movement
• 1842 - second Chartists movement
• 1848 - third and most formidable, coincided with the year of revolutions in Europe.

• 5 lakh workers gathered in London in 1848 to present the charter to parliament.
• In favour of the charter, they collected 60 lakh signatures, including many fakes.
• Meantime, it was the rainy season, police dispersed the workers.

Decline and Failure?

By 1848, the Chartists had tried every avenue open to them, from petitions to strikes and

economic boycotts and revolution - and all had failed. After 1848, it ceased to be a mass

movement. Reasons for the outcome:

• Ineffective leadership
• Inability to popularize ideas and program.
• Internal factionalism
• Use of unethical practices
• Misdirected energy (common people wanted economic relief, while chartists promised

political outcome)

Still, the Chartist movement was significant:

The Chartist movement failed in immediate objectives, but it was not complete failure. In

history of democratic reforms, this movement enjoy a place of great significance.

• This was the 1 st major working-class movement anywhere in the world. It inspired

workers to come together in favour of their demands.

• Chartism helped create a long-term political culture in which later left-wing ideas

flourished.

• Chartism was primarily a working-class movement. It fostered a sense of class

consciousness and empowered the working-class population by providing a

platform for political activism and collective action.

• Although many Chartists eventually drifted into single-issue politics or the Liberal

Party, or gave up altogether, the ideas developed by Chartists were enormously

important for the socialist parties that emerged later in the century.

• Chartism taught organizational structure, mobilization techniques, leadership

skills, collective action that inspired trade union leadership. It helped to

strengthenthetradeunions andtheyemergedmuchmorepowerfulinthesecond

half of the 19 th century than before.

• The awareness created by movement among persuaded the government to take several

steps in improvement of condition of workers parliament enacted - Health Act, Minning

Act, Factory Act etc. to take care interest of working class.

• Inall,therewasnoresultinimmediateterm.Butthesemovementswerenotinsignificant.

Gradually, 5/6 demands were fulfilled, except annual parliament. In that sense, they did

not fail, but success took rather longer than the Chartists might have hoped.

1 Redistribution of seats between county

(countryside) and boroughs.

Redistribution of Seats Act 1885

2 Universal male suffrage above 21 years old 1867, 1884, 1918: universal male

suffrage. (women - 1928)

3 Secret Ballot Secret Ballot Act in 1872

4 No property qualifications Property Qualification for Members

of Parliament Act 1858

5 Payment of MPs Parliament Act 1911

6 Annual Parliaments Not introduced

E. Resurgence of Trade Unionism (post 1850 s)

After Chartism had petered out, there was again a resurgence of the trade union movement

in the 1850 s. There began a long period of industrial expansion and economic growth during

which trade unionism entered a phase of steady expansion and consolidation.

The unionsformed during the 1850 sareoften referred to asthe New Model Unions and such

unions were meant for the more skilled sections of the working classes.

UPSC CSE PYQs

• What was the extent of industrialisation in Western Europe by the end of the

nineteenth century? [2009, 30 m]

• The process of industrialisation in some other countries of Europe was different from

that in England. Discuss. [2012, 20 m]

• How did the policies of governments facilitate the process of industrialisation in

Europe? [2019, 20 m]

England was the country which experienced the Industrial Revolution first. She became the

'workshop of the world', the whole of England became dotted with factories and new

industrial cities came into existence. Britain maintained complete monopoly over

industrialized economy during latter half of 18 th century.

Industrialization, however, did not remain confined to England alone. Other European

countrieslike France,Germany,and Russiawentthroughasimilarprocess.Withtheindustrial

revolution,westernand central Europesawtheriseofafull-fledgedcapitalisteconomy.Such

an economy was based on commodity production and market economy.

• Belgium was the first country outside Britain

towitnessindustrialisation duringtheopening

years of 19 th century.

• Under Napoleon, industrial revolution

commenced in France around 1805-06.

• With the establishment of Zollverein in 1820 s,

industrial revolution commenced in Germany.

• In 1820 IR commenced in USA, but the real

phase of industrialization was witnessed in 1870.

• Japan was the first Asian nation to undergo industrialization, after Meiji Restoration.
• In Russia industrialization commenced in 1890 s on small scale the real phase of

industrialization was witnessed after the end of Russian civil war in 1921.

Europe reached the climax of its material development with world supremacy in industrial

production. Soon, capitalism made its presence felt across the whole world. Under the

forceful thrust of capitalism, the Asiatic societies of the east and the feudal societies of

eastern Europe were to undergo economic changes too.

Wherever industrial revolutions occurred, be they in England after 1760, in the United States

and Germany after 1870, or in Canada, Japan and Russia in the 20 th c., the character and

effects were fundamentally the same.

• Everywhere it was associated with the application of science to industry, and a more

intensive and extensive use of capital.

• There was population growth, and massive

urbanization, giving rise to new social

classes alongside parallel changes in cultural

and intellectual developments.

• In each case, the course of the movement

was affected by circumstances of time and

place. In the European example, the

Industrial Revolution first occurred in

England and shortly thereafter swept over

other European countries.

Although the basic spark for the Industrial

Revolution spread from England to other countries, the process of industrialization varied

from one country to another.

Spread of Industrialization:

First Industrialization Second Industrialization

In Britain, industrialization was

unplanned.

Outside of Britain, it was planned. They couldn't follow

the British template to fill the gap with Britain.

Britain had the first mover's

advantage. It caused de-

industrialization in other

regions.

Two different types of impact:

• Indiaand China were colonized,sotheycouldn't take

anyprotectivemeasuresandthusfacedthecondition

of deindustrialization. Japan was the only Asian

country to follow industrialization.

• On the other hand, USA, Russia, Germany and some

other western countries took artificial measures to

save themselves and chose a different path of

industrialization for itself.

More emphasis on consumer

goodsindustries.(cottongoods

industries, woolen industries,

iron-forging industry)

More emphasis on heavy/basic industries. They

producedinputsforconsumergoodsindustries.(ironand

steel industries, chemical industries etc.)

No railway development for

take-off

Railways played a very significant role.

Water and steam power IC engine and electricity

Only in Britain Expanded from western Europe to the other parts of

Europe and even to Asia (Japan).

Buy Britishboardgame.Itwasdescribed

as "an exciting world race, and one

whichwillteachtheplayerstrade within

the Empire."

The differences between the different nations in the degree of industrialization gradually

fostered a spirit of national rivalry among them. Every European nation tried to surpass the

others in developing its machine industries, exploiting its natural resources, stimulating its

trade, both domestic and foreign, and increasing the social security and purchasing power of

its citizens. Economic nationalism thus became the order of the day everywhere in Europe

and it brought with it tariff wars, colonial rivalry, and exploitation of the underdeveloped

countries of the world. This economic nationalism appeared in its most aggressive form in

Germany during the decades following 1870.

(A) Franch Industrialization

• French industrialization had suffered from three major limitation from the beginning:

• France had been predominantly agrarian in temperament. This attachment to

agriculture made the pace of French industrialization very slow.

• France had a scarcity to coal which limited the scope of internal expansion.
• The political unrest of the revolutionary period had delayed the coming of the

Industrial Revolution in France.

• Napoleon:

• The earliest industrialization effort in France can however be traced back to the

time of Napoleon Bonaparte although Napoleon's attempt to deprive England of

her world market by imposing the Continental System met with limited success.

• Louis Philippe (1830-48): The process of industrialization in France took off between the

Vienna Congress (1815) and the February Revolution (1848).

• He patronized the French capitalists and protected the nascent French industries,

brushing aside the interest of the working classes.

• National economic Integration:

▪ Rail connected Paris with other cities from 1837.

▪ New roads and bridges.

• Protectionism: He

restructured the tariff

system to protect the

domestic market.

• Napoleon III: The pace of

industrialization was quickened

with the arrival of Napoleon III.

• The railroad network was

enlarged. Between 1850-

Building of the Eiffel Tower in 1889 the great

industrial advancement due to the usage of iron

and steel in construction.

70, 10,000 miles were added.

• As a result of the growth of the railroad, other capital goods industries like coal,

iron, and steel, received new encouragement, while French textiles, silks, and

perfume became world-famous.

• He inspired the private business initiative of many leading French families.
• The Bank of France, too, owed its origin to the efforts of this ruler.
• Beginning of various programs for the welfare of the working class.
• Thus, by 1870, France held second place in the global export trade.

(B) German Industrialization

Constraints/challenges/barriers

In the second industrialisation, Germany emerged as a leading country but for its

industralisation, Germany had to overcome a series of obstacles.

1. Germany was a collection of 300 tiny states. The presence of such a large number of

states created a barrier against a big internal market.

1. Serfdom was existing in German region, so peasants were tied to land. So, there was

a dearth of sufficient labour force for industrialisation.

1. Apartfromthat,paternalisticlawswereprevailingin Germany.Theselawsputa check

over the free settlement of the people from one region to another region.

1. In a major part of Germany, the old system of production i.e. guild system was still

prevailing.

1. Above all, in Germany, unlike Britain, there was a dearth of individual capital for

investment.

But in spite of these barriers mentioned above, Germany went for industrialisation and in

future, it emerged to be the most industrialised nation in Europe.

1815-35: Period of Early Industrialization

1835-70 s: Industrial Take-off

Post 1870 s: High Industrialization

The methods adopted in the Germany to promote industrialization:

1. Napoleon was unconscious catalyst for German industrialization

• First of all, base work was done by Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon, after

conquering Germany, just reorganized

German states into 16 bigger states in

place of 300 tiny states. So, this

phenomenon led to the integration of the

market.

• Furthermore, Napoleon Bonaparte

introduced the continental system in his

trade war against Britain. Under this

system, British goods were boycotted

everywhere including Germany. So,

naturally, this incident resulted in German goods in the German region.

1. Role of Prussia
• Among German states, Prussia was a

leading region and Prussia had always

given priority to economic issues. For

example,

i. Prussian government used to

appoint a merchant for the post

of Finance Minister.

ii. In the Congress of Vienna,

Prussia exchanged some Polish region with iron and coal-producing

Rhine region.

iii. Gradually, serfdom was abolished and even paternalistic laws were

abolished in 1849.

• So, Prussiawent for industrialisation and thisindustrialisation stimulated even

in other parts of Germany.

1. Bank-led growth hypothesis: Joint-stock banks and Universal banks
• Lastly, there was a question of investment of capital in industrialisation. The

role which wasplayedbyindividual capital in Britain,wasplayed byjoint-stock

banks in Germany. Joint-stock credit banks took interest in investment and

mobilised the capital for industrialisation.

1. Similarity with American model
• In Germany, there was alongtradition of thepromotion of primaryeducation,

right from the period of Prussian monarch Frederick the Great, an Enlightened

monarch.

• Germanmodelofindustrialisationwasinspiredbyaneconomist Frederick List,

who followed the method of Hamilton in USA in the form of protectionist

policy. List was greatly opposed to the policy of laissez-faire of Adam Smith.

1. Two main factors: Market integration

• In 1830 s and 1840 s, there was the

expansion of railways in Germany. So,

the internal market of Germany

developed. It acted as both backward

and forward linkage andhelped in 'take-

off' of economy.

• This market was further integrated

further due to the formation of

Zollverein(1834),acustomunion.Inthis

way, Germany went on the path of

industrialisation.

1. Industries: Role of science was prominent
• The (catch-up) industrial revolution in

Germany differed from that of the

pioneering country of Great Britain in

that the key industries became not the

textile industry but coal production,

steel production and railroad

construction.

• Industries

i. Steel: Krupp

ii. Auto Industry - Mercedes Benz (in USA, Ford)

iii. Chemical industry - Synthetic dyes substitute to Indigo in India

iv. Electrical industries - Siemens

1. German Unification
• The unification of Germany in the Empire in 1871 further accelerated

economic growth.

Industrialisation in Germany led to a wider impact.

1. Its immediate impact was the unification of Germany.
• British economist J.M. Keynes had tried to link the phenomena of unification

of Germany to the phenomena of Iron and coal.

1. Then unified Germany created a major problem for the Balance of power in Europe.
• In fact, the German capitalist class created a social base for unification in the

hope that a unified Germany could give support to the German industrialist

class in the manner the British Empire had been giving support to the British

capitalist class. So, naturally, the unification of Germany resulted in a rivalry

between the British Empire and the German Empire for the search of the

market. Finally, it resulted in the First World War.

The Vienna World Expo (1873)

was a major showcase of

industrial and technological

progress from around the world.

The artillery section of the Vienna

World Exposition was one of the

most popular sections. The

Krupps 40 cm cannon was the

centre of attraction.

Krupps Steelworks, 1917.

(C) American Industrialization

Soon after British industrialization, industrialization started in the USA and it emerged as the

leading nation in the world.

Geographically, the U.S. was a huge country with all the resources necessary for an industrial

boom.

Challenges before the USA:

• During the long spell of British colonialism, it faced mercantilist restrictions on

industrialization.

• After independence, it needed some protective measures to safeguard its nascent

industries. However, initially, the USA faced a challenge of forming a strong central

government. In 1781, a weak government formed under the Articles of Confederacy was

unable to enforce powerful and progressive policy.

• There was a dearth of essential economic infrastructure in USA (roads, canals, banking,

credit agencies, managing agencies etc.)

The methods adopted by the USA to promote industrialization:

• Formation of a powerful Federal government under the Constitution of Philadelphia
• Creation of infrastructure

• Cumberland Roads were built by the Federal government.
• Turnpikes
• Canals

▪ The introduction of steamboats

set off a mania for canalbuilding.

Between 1800 and the

depression of 1837, which put a

halt to most construction, more

than 3,000 miles of canals were

built.

• From 1820 s till 1870 s: Railroad Mania

▪ Railroads were one of the keys

to America's 19 th c. industrial

success.

▪ The first commercial railroad, the

Baltimore & Ohio, was begun in

1828 and by 1860, there were

more than 30,000 miles of rails in

the United States.

▪ Railroads increased commerce and integrated the American market.

▪ Railroads were also the first modern corporations.

First Transcontinental Railroad,

opened in 1869

▪ Created the first captains of industry, like Cornelius Vanderbilt and Andrew

Carnegie and Leland Stanford.

• Telegraph
• It picked pace particularly after the post-civil war era (Reconstruction Era)
• Later even airports

• American model of industrialization took a different path from

the British model.

• Unlike in Britain, in the USA, labor was not cheap. So,

the USApreferredtochoosesophisticatedtechnologies

to excel in the field of industrialization. Initially, it

imported advanced technologies and later it could

develop its own various technologies.

• Market Revolution (first half of the 19 th c.): It was the beginning of the modern

commercial industrial economy.

• Changing nature of work: Cottage → Putting-out → Factory Production
• Positive Government Role: The federal government

▪ Built roads and canals, gave massive landgrants for railroads.

▪ Foundation of banking and other financial institutions

▪ Unlike Britain, the USA preferred to adopt Protectionist policy. An

Americandiplomat-cum-economist Hamiltonwasagreat advocatefor this

protectionist policy.

▪ USA introduced compulsory primary education. She came to believe that

basic education would make the people aware of industry and consumer

products.

• Legal Protection

▪ American Constitution protects patents, which encourages invention and

innovation.

▪ American Constitution and its Commerce Clause made the U.S. a single

area of commerce, like a giant customs union, and the Supreme Court

interpreted the laws in a very business-friendly way.

• States

▪ In the 1830 s, states began passing general incorporation laws, which made

it easier to create corporations.

▪ States issued bonds to build canals and offered good deals to companies

that built railroads.

• Role of Civil War (increased efficiency and productivity)

• Improved the finance system by forcing the introduction of a national currency
• Spurred industrialization by giving massive contracts to arms and clothing

manufacturers.

• Boosted the telegraph, which

improved communication

• Gave birth to the Transcontinental

Railway by the Pacific Railway Act of

1862

• Demography, Immigration and Urbanization

• America's population grew from 40

million in 1870 to 76 million in 1900,

and a third of that growth was due to

immigration, which is good for

economies.

▪ New York City became the

center of commerce and

finance, and by 1898, it had a population of 3.4 million people, and the

industrial heartland was in the Great Lakes region.

• Foreigners played an important role.

▪ The U.S. was, at the time, seen by Europeans as a developing economy,

and investments in America offered much higher returns than those

available in Europe.

By 1913, the United States produced one-third of the world's total industrial output.

(D) Industrialization in Russia

Russia was a country of continental size and vast resources (favorable factors) but due to its

climatic factor (eg excessive cold in many regions) and the dearth of individual capital and

the feudal nature of society, industrialisation appeared to be a very difficult phenomenon in

Russia. But in spite of these barriers, Russia went for Industrialisation.

Bid for Industrialisation in Russia in 18 th century:

In 18 th c, Russian emperor Peter the Great (1682-1725) launched Russia on the path of

modernization and industrialization. Industrialization:

• He established some armament industries with the help of slave labour.
• To create a strong navy that could compete with other European powers, he established

a shipbuilding industry on the shores of the Baltic Sea.

• Other areas of industry, such as metallurgy, mining, and textiles.

• He established state-run factories to produce iron and copper.
• He encouraged the development of private enterprises.
• He also introduced new techniques (e.g. blast furnaces, water-powered mills) to

increase productivity and efficiency.

The Brooklyn Bridge (1883) was one of

the longest and tallest suspension

bridges in the world. It was a symbol of

American engineering prowess and

industrial might.

• However, his initiative for Industrialisation did not produce the expected result.

Industrialisation in Russia in 19 th century:

• In an actual sense, Industrialisation in Russia started in 19 th century under the Russian

emperor Czar Alexander II. His financial expert Sergei Witte took the initiative for

Industrialisation.

• Russian Industrialisation was based on the Gerschenkron model. Late industrializing

nations don't follow the model of first industrialised nation.

• Challenges like lack of some factors for Industrialisation need be compensated

through active participation of the state.

• Opportunities like opportunity to adopt latest technology without having to

undergo experimentation.

Features of Industrialisation in Russia:

• Russia's vast landmass was rich in natural resources, such as coal, iron ore, and timber.

The availability of these resources provided a strong foundation for industrialization.

However,Russianindustrializationwasalsohamperedbyanumberofobstacles,including

a large peasant population, a lack of infrastructure, and a weak government. As a result,

Russia lagged behind other Western European countries in terms of industrial

development.

• In Russian Industrialisation, the state played a major role, while the middle class was

weak and didn't play any significant role.

• The state played a major role through planning/implementing/producing and as a

consumer, through policies, tariffs, and subsidies.

• The state also played a key role in developing infrastructure, such as railroads and

canals.

• Railways

• Russia's industrialization heavily relied on the exploitation of its vast natural

resources, including coal, iron ore, and timber. Railways played a crucial role in

connecting these resource-rich areas in Siberia, the Urals, and other regions to

industrial hubs in European Russia. The Trans-Siberian Railway, for instance,

facilitated the transportation of Siberian raw materials to European factories.

• In order to mobilise the resources, the state imposed heavy taxation on the peasantry.
• To kickstart industrialization, Russia relied on foreign capital and expertise. The

government encouraged foreign investment and imported Western technology and

know-how.

• In the dearth of individual capital, the state played the role of investor in order to

fulfill the need for investment, the state took loans even from abroad.

• Russia imported technology and industrial methods from Western Europe. This

transfer of technology accelerated the industrialization process.

• In Russian Industrialisation, there was emphasis over the big as well as heavy industries.

• Russian industrialization was the concentration of industry in a few key sectors,

suchasheavyindustry,mining,andoildrilling. Thisconcentrationofindustry was

partly due to the government's emphasis on developing these sectors, and partly

due to the fact that these sectors were the most profitable.

• Russianfactoriesweremuchbiggerin

size when compared with other

European nations.

• At an average, more than 500

workers were employee in

Russian industries in reality,

Russian factors were large

industrial complexes.

Impact: It was nature of Russian

Industrialisation that prepared the way

for Russian Revolution as well as the

success of the Communist Party.

• Working class:

• In Russia, most of the industries were established in a particular region, so the

activities of the working-class were confined to that particular region only.

• Since the industries were huge in size, the concentration of workers was very

high. This resulted in growing consciousness among the working-class and finally

the success of the Communist Party in Russia.

• Due to heavy taxation peasants were offended, so they joined the revolution.
• So, the Russian middle class was in a weak position in Russia and whenever there was

the rise of the Communist Party, the middle class could not counter the communist

movement in Russia.

Industrialization after Communist Revolution:

• Since it was based on the ideology of communism, the concept of private property and

profit orientation were absent.

• No roleof market force what wasto beproducedand how much wastobe produced and

to whom it was to be sold and at what price were determined by the state.

• Initially,the machines were imported. Later on,the machineswere manufactured locally.

Trans-Siberian Railway was the longest railway

line in the world when it was completed in

1. It connected Moscow to Vladivostok on

the Pacific coast.

• Capital goods were produced the Russians focused on manufacturing machines so that

more and more industries could be setup at a rapid pace.

• The pace of industrialization was extremely rapid after 1921. Within a period of less than

3 decades, the Soviet Union emerged as an industrial superpower.

• The exploitation of theworking class was largelyabsent because of the publicownership

of factories; every person in a factory was the worker, there was no employer. Everyone

was a state employee.

(E) Meiji Restoration and Industrialization In Japan

• At that time, Japan had been a closed society for over 200 years, following the policy of

Sakoku (closed country) which prohibited most foreigners from entering the country and

limited Japanese citizens' ability to travel abroad.

• Japan was also apprehensive that opening of markets for European/American traders

could result in colonization Japan.They had seenthe fate of other Asian countries such as

China and India.

Commodore Perry opened Japan for USA. 1854

• Commodore Matthew Perry was sent by the US government on a mission to open trade

relations with Japan in 1852-1854. The US wanted to expand its trade and influence in

Asia, saw Japan as a potential market, and thus wanted to establish diplomatic relations.

• Perry was specifically tasked with delivering a letter from U.S. President Millard Fillmore

to the Emperor of Japan, requesting that Japan open its ports to American trade and

establish a treaty of amity and commerce.

• Perry arrived in Japan with a fleet of four steam-powered warships and used his military

might and diplomatic skills to negotiate with Japanese officials.

Two US-Japan treaties

• The Treaty of Kanagawa 1854 was a relatively simple agreement.

• Japanese government agreed to allow American ships to enter two Japanese

ports, Shimoda, and Hakodate, for the purpose of refueling, repairing, and

resupplying.Iteffectivelyopeneduplimitedtradebetween the United Statesand

Japan.

• Japanese government agreed to establish a US Consulate in Shimoda. A

significant concession. Japanese had previously closed off to foreign diplomatic

and trade relations.

• Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1858)

• One of the most significant examples of this exploitation
• It granted the United States significant economic advantages in trade with Japan,

including most-favored-nation status, extraterritoriality, and low tariffs on goods.

• Despite being modest in scope, it marked a significant turning point in Japan's history.

• It opened up Japan to the outside world: Once USA forced open Japan, rest of

European powers followed to open it up for them. In the years following the

Treaty of Kanagawa, Japan signed similar unequal treaties with other Western

powers, including the United Kingdom, France, and Russia.

• However, they also helped to spur Japan's modernization by

▪ The unequal treaties and foreign influence eventually led to growing

resentment among Japanese, which was one of the key factors that led to

the Meiji Restoration.

▪ They also brought in Western technology and ideas. It began a process of

modernization and industrialization that would transform the country.

Meiji Restoration (Meiji Era: 1868-1912)

• Soon,thepowerandprestigeof Tokugawashogunatedeclinedsharply.Soon,itcollapsed

and then there was restoration of power to the emperor. There was a series of events

which led to the restoration of the emperor.

• It was largely led by a group of samurai from the Choshu and Satsuma domains.

• They were disillusioned with the Tokugawa shogunate's inability to resist foreign

pressures and its failure to address internal political and economic problems.

• Fear that Japan could be subjected to the same imperialist pressures that they

observed happening in nearby China.

• They believed that the West depended on constitutionalism for national unity, on

industrialization for material strength, and on a well-trained military for national

security. They sought to create a nation-state capable of standing equal among

Western powers.

• They saw the emperor as a symbol of national unity and sovereignty and sought

to restore his power and authority.

Political Transformation:

• Steps taken to create centralized state with national identity

• They brought the young emperor (14 years old) from Kyoto and installed him in

Edo, renamed as Tokyo, on the throne in 1867.

• Dismantling of the old feudal regime.

▪ The administrative reorganization had been largely accomplished by 1871,

when the domains were officially abolished and replaced by a prefecture

system.

▪ All feudal class privileges were abolished as well.

• In 1871, a national army was formed, which was further strengthened by a

universal conscription law.

• Resistance and opposition

• Disgruntled samurai participated in several rebellions against the government.
• Peasants, distrustful of the new regime and dissatisfied with its agrarian policies,

also took part in revolts that reached their peak in the 1880 s.

• Those uprisings were repressed only with great

difficulty by the newly formed army.

• There was also a growing popular rights

movement, encouraged by the introduction of

liberal Western ideas.

• Finally, responding to those pressures, in 1889, Meiji

Constitution was created.

• It was presented as a gift from the emperor to

the people, and it could be amended only upon

imperial initiative.

• Largely the handiwork of Ito Hirobumi, the

constitution established a bicameral parliament

(Diet) that was to be elected through a limited

voting franchise.

• Aprivycouncilcomposedoftheelderstatemen,

created prior to the constitution, advised the

emperor and wielded actual power.

This event started the beginning of Japan's modernization

of economy, society and culture. The Meiji government sought to modernize and strengthen

Japansothatitcouldresist foreign pressuresandavoidfurtherexploitation.Thisincluded the

adoption of Western technologies, institutions, and military strategies, as well as the

renegotiation of the unequal treaties with Western powers. Thus, Japanese industrialisation

was not independent but as a part of overall modernization program which appeared with

the Meiji Restoration.

Economic Transformation: (Steps taken by the government)

• The new government carried out policies to unify the monetary and tax systems.

• Land reforms to abolish feudal system and allow individual ownership to farmers.

• Education and Training

• Introduced a system of compulsory primary education to create a more educated

and skilled workforce.

• Japan's first Ministry of Education was established in 1871 to develop a national

system of education.

Emperor Meiji

The procession of Emperor Meiji

moving from Kyoto to Tokyo

• Initially, the focus was on western education. Under the banner of "Civilization

and Enlightenment" (Bunmei kaika), Western culture, from intellectual trends to

clothing and architecture, was widely promoted.

• The Meiji government actively encouraged the adoption of Western technologies and

management practices.

• The government invested heavily in building infrastructure such as railways, ports, and

telegraph lines.

• The first railroad was built in 1872, and by 1890 the country had more than 2,250

km of rail.

• Telegraph lines linked all major cities by 1880.

• The government implemented tariff policies to protect domestic industries from foreign

competition.

• One of the objectives was to prepare the way for the foundation of basic and heavy

industries. The private investors/banks in Japan did not take much interest.

• So, the Japanese government itself took initiative in the industrialisation

program.

• The government laid the foundation for basic and heavy industries, but it did not prefer

to maintain these industries under government control. So, except for certain industries

with strategic importance, the government sold the industries to private investors at a

subsidized rate.

• Due to the specific nature of industrialisation, the sort of deformity appeared in

Japanese industrialisationduring the veryearlyphase. Zaibatsu(financialcliqueof

business conglomerates) were big banker families (Mitsubishi, Mistui, Sumitomo,

Yasuda, Iwasaki); possessed 34% of banking capital and captured most of heavy

industries as well. These families and their respective zaibatsu were instrumental

in Japan's rapid industrialization and modernization during the Meiji era and

beyond.

• Thus appeared the monopoly capital and this monopoly capital was having a negative

orientationasitstartednotsimplytodominatethewholeeconomybut also to influence

the policies and foreign policy of Japan.

• The rise of monopoly capital in Japan demanded colonial expansion and thus prepared

the way for militarization in Japan.

Additional characteristics of industrialisation:

• Industrial revolution in Japan was triggered by the spirit of nationalism, instead of being

a natural outcome of a demand for Japanese goods.

• The Japanese producers,initially, did not focus on high quality products. Their aim was to

produce the cheapest goods because they targeted the bottom of pyramid. The purpose

of Japanese manufacturers was to meet domestic needs at low price and the flood

European market with cheap products.

• Electrical and Electronic goods were specially focused upon by Japanese manufacturers.

• The pace of industrialization was extremely rapid. Inspite of being a latecomer on

industrial scene, Japan attained within a period of three decades what Britain achieved in

150 years.

• Exploitation of working class was comparatively less in Japan because all were inspired

with the spirit of nationalism.

By the early 20 th century, the goals of the Meiji Restoration had been largely accomplished.

• Japan was well on its way to becoming a modern industrialized country.
• The unequal treaties that had granted foreign powers judicial and economic privileges

through extraterritoriality were revised in 1894.

Japanese Imperialism:

• Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902
• Expansion:

• Korea, Taiwan
• Victory in China war in 1894-95
• Victory over Russia in 1905 War

With the two victories, Japan gained respect in the eyes of the Western world. The death of

the emperor Meiji in 1912 marked the end of the period.

spread of Marxian Socialism - Part 1

UPSC CSE PYQs

• Pre Marxian development
• "If we were to define our conception of the State,our answer would bethat the

State is the banker of the poor. The government would finance and supervise

the purchase of productive equipments and the formation of workshops." In

light of the above statement of Louis Blanc, throw light on the Pre-Marxist

Socialist Thought in Europe. [2014, 20 Marks]

• How would you explain the nature of pre-Marxian Socialism? [2019, 10 Marks]
• Marx
• "Marxian Communism is primarily the offspring of German Hegelianism and

French Socialism." Comment. [2001, 20 Marks]

• "Karl Marx applied his critical intelligence to Wealth of Nations ... Where Smith

hadseen onlythe sunlight,Marxsawonlytheshadowsthrownuponthehuman

scene by the unimpeded exercise of individual liberty..." Elucidate. [2016, 10

Marks]

• "With the writings of Karl Marx, Socialism assumed the form of Scientific

Socialism." Critically examine. [2018, 10 Marks]

• Marxian socialism claims itself to be a scientific socialist theory capable of

explaining the history of humankind. Discuss. [2023, 20 Marks]

• Spread
• "France was more fertile than Britain in producing new Socialist theories and

movements, though they bore less concrete results in France than in Britain."

Comment. [2008, 20 Marks]

• "France was more fertile than Britain in producing new Socialist theories and

movements, though they bore less concrete results in France than in Britain."

Critically examine. [2015, 10 Marks]

• 'Engels did much more than Marx himself to popularize the ideas of Marxism.'

Critically examine. [2022, 10 m]

Utopian Socialism

The idea of simple equalitarian society was there among certain scholars from the ancient

period. Even during Enlightenment, Rousseau's ideas have elements of socialism. However,

thetermsocialismwascoinedin 1830 sin Franceby Saint-Simon(orhisdisciple Pierre Leroux).

It was the product of the Industrial Revolution. Thus, it is a distinctly modern phenomenon.

With the industrial revolution there appeared an issue of the relationship between the labor

and the capital. Labor was exploited by capital and the condition of workers declined rapidly

duetourbanmigration,slumsincities,unsanitarylivingconditions,workplaceissueslikelong

duration, inhuman work conditions, accidents etc.…

So,initially,itwasthemiddle-classscholarswhowantedtobringreformstoresolvetheissue.

In France a group of thinkers, calling themselves socialists, wanted to better society. They

believed that the French revolutionary era had focused too much on the individual and there

should instead be more focus more on the health of the whole. Their socialism entailed

philanthropy.

Robert Owen:

• Being a British Industrialist, he laid the foundation of

industry in Scotland.

• In New Lanark Mill, he provided all facilities for the

working class (salaries, 8-hour work, education etc.). And

profit was to take a back seat to the overall well-being of

thecommunityandallofitsindividualmembers. Soon,he

came to realize that through extending better facilities to

workers, even the profit of the industry increased. Thus,

he concluded; a satisfied worker is a real asset.

• Owen's ideas gained traction among reform-minded industrialists, and officials,

and workers, and thinkers.

• In 1824, he moved to America and put most of his fortune in an experimental socialistic

community at New Harmony, Indiana, as a preliminary for his Utopian society.

• It lasted about two years.

• Other Owenite communities also failed, and in 1828 Owen returned to London, where he

continued to champion the working class, lead in developing cooperatives and the trade

union movement, and support child labor legislation and free schools.

In France during the post-Napoleonic period, Claude Henri Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and

Auguste Comte devised ideas for well-run communities that emphasized harmony and

efficient management.

Saint Simon (1760-1825):

• He was a supporter of capitalism and modern industrial

production. He believed that the resources of nature are

abundant so in place of unhealthy competition with each

other, all should try to use natural resources with proper

cooperation with each other. Then everyone would be

satisfied.

• He gave his famous slogan "From each according to his

capacity, to each according to its Work".

• He became a very prestigious socialist thinker in Europe.

He formed a society named League of Just of which even Engels and Karl Marx became

members.

Charles Fourier (1772-1837):

• He did not believe in industrial society, rather he preferred

to live in the countryside or in a small town. There is less

scope for exploitation in such areas.

• He supported cooperative agriculture and pleaded for

organizing the peasants into a cooperative group for

production and taking the benefit of agriculture.

Criticism of Utopian Socialists

• These scholars were middle-class thinkers, and they were

idealistic in their approach.

• Like enlightened thinkers, they believed in the basic

goodness of man and perfectibility of the world.

• So, they believed in class co-operation, not in class

conflict. One common idea was belief in the

rational organization of human societies.

• Humanitarianism and Morality: These thinkers

sought to address the issue of the suffering and

exploitation of the workers from a moral

standpoint. They believed in the moral duty of

society to care for its less fortunate members.

• Thus, there was no concrete/critical understanding

basedonhistorical/classanalysis.Theylackedclear

understanding of the nature of capitalism or how to overthrow it.

Socialism: Utopian and

Scientific (1880)

• These thinkers contributed to the formation of modern social sciences: sociology,

economics, anthropology, and government.

• Eg. August Comte promoted the idea of positivism (empirical observation and

scientific study)

• Pre-Marxian socialists often favored gradual and peaceful reform. They were opposed to

the revolution as they learnt a bitter lesson from the French revolution that how did

French Revolution start to devour its own children.

• They believed that change could be achieved through legislative means and

gradual shifts in societal norms.

• Examples:

▪ Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier: it was possible to create a perfect and

harmonious society on Earth through peaceful means, such as voluntary

cooperation and education.

▪ Louis Blanc: believed that socialism could be achieved through gradual

social and political reforms.

• Role of State:

• Pre-Marxian socialists typically believed in the active role of the state in shaping

and reforming society. The state was viewed as a means to achieve collective

welfare.

• Cooperative and Communal solutions: They promoted ideas such as arrangements

where resources and labor would be shared.

• Around the world, such people set up communities. Engineers and planners' skills

to make society operate without tensions and uprisings.

• These were abstract, idealistic and unrealistic visions without detailed plans.

• These plans often involved top-down, state-driven or community-based solutions rather

than a fundamental transformation of the economic base of society. Thus, Marx rejected

their methods and objectives as utopian.

However, pre-Marxian socialists made important contributions to the development of

socialist thought. They were the first to advocate for social ownership of the means of

production and distribution of goods and services. They also developed a number of

important concepts, such as the idea of class conflict and the need for social reform.

Louis Blanc (1811-82)

• In order to ensure economic betterment of workers, it is

essential for them to gain political power as well. Only a

pro-working-class government in true sense can work for

upliftment of workers.

• According to him, the state should play an active role for

the betterment of workers.

• The Stateshouldestablishsocialworkshopsunderits

direct supervision.

• Such workshops should extend help to individual

workersbywayofinitialcapital(financialassistance)

and essential tools, so that they can organize the production on their own (start

their own business or workshop).

• This sort of production encouraged by the state would be beneficial to all

workers.

• In 1848, in French Republic, he came to grace the post of a minister. In this, he

introduced all round reform program. He initiated the foundation of Social Workshops.

Marxism

1. The theory of Dialectical Materialism:

• Marx was inspired by Hegel (Idealistic thinker).

• Hegel conceived dialecticism on an

ideological basis.

• For Idealists, our state of mind guides our

behavior and emotions. Thus, cultural

condition drives economic change.

• Marx was basically a materialistic scholar, so,

although he borrowed the concept of dialecticism

from Hegel he applied it to the material base i.e., the means of production.

• For Materialists, all actions and behaviors arise from material reality. Thus,

economic conditions drive material changes.

• Marxsaidthatwithchangeinthemeansofproduction,therewillbesocio-cultural

change. So, his dialecticism reflected itself through the concept of class conflict.

Hegel Marx

Idealist Materialist

Believed that history is driven by the

unfolding of the Absolute Spirit.

Believed that history is driven by class

conflict.

Saw the state as the embodiment of the

Absolute Spirit.

Saw the state as a tool of the ruling class.

Believed in the inevitability of progress Believed that progress is only possible

through revolution

1. The Basic structure and Superstructure

The substructure is the material base of society, and it includes the things that are necessary

for people to produce and distribute goods and services.

• The forces of production are the physical means of production, such as land, labor, and

tools.

• The relations of production are the social relationships between people who are involved

in the production of goods and services.

The superstructure is the cultural and ideological realm of society.

• It includes the things that are produced by the substructure, such as culture, ideology,

law, politics, religion, and the state.

• The superstructure reflectsand reinforcesthe relationsofproduction inthesubstructure.

Marx believed that the substructure is the primary determinant of the superstructure. He

argued that the substructure changes over time, and that these changes eventually lead to

changes in the superstructure.

1. Materialistic interpretation of history:

"Thehistoryofallhithertoexistingsocietyisthehistoryofclassstruggle,"saysthe Communist

Manifesto, co-written with Friedrich Engels and published in 1848.

Marx divided European society into following stages:

According to Marx society goes from one stage to another stage due to material change.

• Primary communism: No scope for surplus production, thus no concept of private

property and no division in society.

• Slaverysystem:Here,asmallclassofnobles,aristocratsstartedexploitinglabourof other

humans (slaves). It was a slave production system. Such system can be seen in ancient

Greece and Rome.

• Feudalism: A group of people developed control over land (means of production).

• Free peasants were converted into the agricultural labour - serf. They were not

free cultivators but tied to the land.

• Capitalism:

Primitive

Communism

Slave

Society

Feudalism Capitalism Socialism Communism

• Those who controlled trade/commerce/industry were bourgeoise and the rest

were the proletariat.

• Industrial society is exploitative due to its clash of interest. So, the next stage

would be socialism.

• Socialism and Communism:

• Marx envisioned socialism as a transitional stage between capitalism and

communism. In socialism, the means of production are collectively owned by the

working class, and wealth is distributed more equitably.

• The socialist stage involves planned economies and the abolition of private

ownership of key industries.

• Marx argued that class distinctions would gradually wither away in socialism,

leading to a classless, communist society.

• The ultimate goal of Marx's theory was the establishment of a communist society,

where wealth is held in common, and class distinctions cease to exist. In

communism, "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs"

would be the guiding principle.

So, according to Marxist estimation, socialism would be the natural culmination of

(European) society.

Stage Oppressor Class Oppressed Class

Primitive Communism No Classes = No Conflict

Slavery Slave-owners Slaves

Feudalism Feudal Lords Serfs

Capitalism Bourgeoisie Proletariat

Socialism State Managers Workers

Communism No Classes = No Conflict

1. The theory of value and surplus-value

Accordingto Marx, in every production,labour plays a very significant role in creatingsurplus

value while capital just arranges raw material. Still, most of the profit is appropriated by the

capitalists. This is because the capitalist class has control over the means of production, it

deprives labour of its due share.

Value:

• According to Marx, the value of a commodity (product/service) is determined by the

amount of socially necessary labor time required to produce it (given the prevailing level

of tech/skills).

• In other words, the more labor it takes to make something, the more valuable it is.

Surplus-Value:

• It represents the extra value created by workers during their labor, beyond what they are

paid in wages.

• Surplus = value of commodity - cost of producing it.
• Cost of production = raw material, machinery, labour power etc.

• In a capitalist system, workers are paid a wage that is typically less than the value they

produce.Thedifferencebetweenthevalueof their laborandtheirwagesissurplus-value.

• So, surplus is appropriated by a capitalist because he owns the means of production.

This surplus is the source of profit for capitalists and is at the heart of class struggle and

economic inequality in Marxist analysis.

1. Marxian concept of self-alienation:

• Marx tried to establish that what separates man from animal is not reasoning and moral

choice rather the capacity to do labour.

• According to Marx, in an industrial society, the working class has continuously been

deprived of their labour. So, they easily fell in the condition of self-alienation.

• Alienation from Produce: Workers do not own or control the products of their

labor.

• Alienation form Process: Workers have no control over the way in which their

work is organized. They are forced to work long hours in repetitive and

monotonous jobs.

• Alienation from other humans: Workers are alienated from other human beings

because they are forced to compete with each other for jobs and wages. This

competition creates a sense of isolation and hostility among workers.

• Alienation from one's own nature: Under capitalism, workers are reduced to

merecommodities,tobeboughtandsoldonthemarket.Thisalienatesthem from

their own human nature, which is to be creative and productive beings.

• Marx argued that the only way to overcome self-alienation is to develop class

consciousness, overthrow capitalism and establish a socialist society, in which workers

will own and control the means of production and will be able to work in a way that is

fulfilling and meaningful.

Different stages in Marxian Revolution

• Capitalism:

• In this stage, the meansof production are privately owned, production is oriented

toward profit, while the working class (proletariat) sells its labor power to

capitalists.

• As capitalism develops, class contradictions become more pronounced. The

working-class experiences exploitation, inequality, and worsening living

conditions, leading to heightened class consciousness and collective action.

• Rise of Proletarian Movements:

• Workers' movements, labor unions, and socialist

organizations gain strength and momentum.

Proletarian revolutionaries advocate for the

overthrow of the capitalist system and the

establishment of a new order.

• Seizure of state power:

• The proletariat class could make an attack on the

government through a bloody revolution, and it will seize the power. In that, they

would be led by a revolutionary vanguard.

• Dictatorship of the proletariat:

• After seizing power, the proletariat class could establish its dictatorship. So, the

working class controls the political power.

• Transition to Socialism: During this stage, the means of production are typically

nationalized or brought under collective ownership.

▪ The goal is to begin the process of transitioning from capitalism to

socialism.

▪ Using the same state machinery, it would destroy private property and

terminate the bourgeoisie class itself.

▪ It is the stage of transition from capitalism to communism where the

means of production pass from private to collective ownership while the

state still exists.

• Internationalism

▪ It was during this stage; the proletariat class should work for the spread of

the revolution in other regions.

• Communism:

• Classless society: Naturally, a time will come when in every region there will be a

dictatorship of the proletariat class. So, now there would be a single class that

would be the proletariat class. So, the class-struggle will end forever.

• Stateless Society: After that, there would be no longer any need for the state.

Naturally, the state would wither away.

Limitations of Marxist Theory

• Marx declared that capitalism would die a natural death as its methods are self-

destructive, but he undermined the power of adaptability in capitalism.

• Later Lenin forwarded the theory to explain why it didn't happen in most

industrializedcountries.Itisbecause Marxdidn'tperceivetheadaptablecharacter

of capitalism.

• Marx proved to be the wrong prophet in history.

• He declared that the proletariat revolution had to take place in the most

industrialized nation - Germany or Britain. But such a revolution took place in an

agrarian country like Russia that too after a great manipulation by Lenin.

• Marxism declared the state to be a class instrument, but the state is not a plaything into

the hand of a single class rather it exists on the support of different classes.

• Finally, even where there was the foundation of a socialist government that did not

happen through any proletariat revolution but rather through a takeover of government

by trained volunteers of the party.

• It was not the proletariats but group of political activists and opportunist political

parties as well as local militia which established socialist governments.

How scientific is Marxism really?

Marxand Engelswerequite active in Parisduringthe year 1848,fullof European Revolutions.

But very soon reactionary elements re-surfaced and revolution was suppressed. After the

relative failure of revolutions of 1848, Europe remained quiet for some time to come.

However, three developments in European history in quick succession once again recharged

the forces of change and give blow to the old order.

• Crimean war of 1854-56
• Success of Italian nationalists after the annexation of Lombardi by Piedmont-Sardinia in

1859.

• Theabolitionoftheslaverysystemin Russiaby Russianemperor Czar Alexander IIin 1861.

With these three factorsof change, once again,the dormant forces of Socialism and Marxism

resurfaced. Marx again became active in Europe. He took the initiative in organizing the First

International in 1860 s.

The First International (1864-1876)

(International Workingmen's Association)

• Founded in London to as a federation of workers' groups, esp. in France and England.
• Originally a loose-knit organization, it gradually assumed centralized character.
• Though Karl Marx was not its president/founder, he soon became one of the most

important leaders.

• Marx delivered the inaugural address at the organization's founding and authored

many of its resolutions and documents. He also served on the General Council of

the IWA.

• Through it, Marx tried to organize the workers of Britain and France.

• It held a number of congresses, at which it debated and adopted policies on a variety of

issues, including workers' rights, trade unions, and international solidarity. It also played

a role in organizing strikes and other forms of worker protest.

• Due to its ideologically diverse character, there were many conflicts within: Marxism,

Proudhonism, Blanquism, Bakuninism etc. Finally, it collapsed over differences between

Marxism and Anarchism.

• Despite its short life, the First International played a major role in the development of the

socialist movement.

• It helped to unite workers across national borders, and it raised awareness of the

problems of capitalism and the need for socialism. It demonstrated the potential

for workers from different countries to unite for a common cause.

• Marx's influence on the organization helped solidify the role of Marxism as a

significant force within the workers' movement.

• It laid the groundwork for future international workers' organizations and labor

movements. It inspired the creation of new socialist and social democratic parties

around the world.

Role of Engels in Popularizing Marxist Socialism

• Collaboration with Marx:

• Close intellectual partnership that spanned several

decades.

▪ They co-authored several key works like "The

German Ideology", which laid the foundation

for Marxist theory.

▪ "The Communist Manifesto" (1848)

• Although primarily authored by Marx, it

was Engels who edited and published it.

• Financial Support:

▪ Engels financially supported Marx, allowing him to focus on his theoretical

work.

• Both worked together in the First International.

• Dissemination of Marxist Ideas:

• After Marx's death in 1883, Engels continued to defend and promote Marxist

ideas.

• Engels edited and prepared many of Marx's manuscripts for publication after

Marx's death, including volumes of "Das Kapital."

• Hewroteprefaces,introductions,andcommentariesforvariouseditionsof Marx's

works, helping to make them more accessible to a wider audience.

• Engels played a key role in popularizing Marxism through his works like

▪ The Holy Family (1844)

▪ The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845)

▪ Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880)

▪ Dialectics of Nature (1883)

▪ The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884)

• Mentoring Other Marxists:

• Engels also corresponded with and provided guidance to socialist and working-

class movements worldwide.

• Engels mentored and influenced several prominent Marxists, including Karl

Kautsky and Eduard Bernstein, who went on to play significant roles in the

communist movement.

• Engels also played a significant role in the initial phase of communist party

formation, especially SPD in Germany with finance, writing and other kinds of

support.

• He helped in the foundation of the Second International.

Marxist Political Parties in Europe

Due to the activities of Marxists in industrialised nation of Western Europe as well as

Germany, there was a looming possibility of a working-class revolution.

• Britain

• There was a big strike by dockyard workers in London in 1889.
• In 1890 s there was formation of the Labour Party which soon adopted humanist

and welfare demands for the workers. So, the condition of a revolution was

averted. It was not Marxist but worked as a socialist party and didn't want to

destroy the existing system.

• In Germany, there was the rise of a leftist party (the Social Democratic Party). This party

gave emphasis to the method of class struggle.

• In order to counter the program of the ultra-leftist party,the German government

first adopted anti-socialist laws, but then adopted a series of welfare works for

the workers - appease the workers and detract the support of SDP.

• Apart from that, the German government promoted imperialist policy so that the

attention of the people is diverted from internal to external issues.

• In France, there was a rise of ultra-leftist.

• First of all, just after the battle of Sedan and humiliation of French Monarch

Napoleon III and the loss of France in this war, there was Third Republic.

• But in the meantime, workers became impatient, and the ultra-nationalist group

of workers seized power in Paris in 1871. This is known as Paris Commune. It was

as per the prophecy of Marx - by workers themselves. Workers in the Paris

Commune remained in power for two months then it lost the power to a middle-

class government. Authorities re-captured power.

• Later, there was the rise of trade union federation in France.

• Apart from France, the leftist party was formed in the west European countries as well,

for example, in Spain, Switzerland, Netherland, Portugal, etc., but nowhere the

bourgeoisie government was replaced by a Marxist government in 19 th century.

• Itwasonlyinthe early 20th centurythattherewastheformationofa Marxistgovernment

in Russia. It was a semi-industrialised nation and based on manipulation by Lenin.

Second International (1889-1916)

• Founded in Paris in 1889.

• Unlike the First International, it was based on the membership of national parties

and trade unions only.

• It was not a centralized organization, like the first, but rather a loose federation

that did not set up an executive body till 1900.

• Outreach:

• By 1912 the Second International represented the socialist and social democratic

parties of all European countries, the United States, Canada, and Japan, with a

voting strength of nearly nine million.

• The Second International was more successful than its predecessor in building a

mass movement for socialism, and it played a major role in the development of

the socialist movement in Europe and around the world.

• Debates on the issue of reform vs. revolution.

• Reformists believe that socialism can be achieved through gradual reforms within

the capitalist system, while revolutionaries believe that socialism can only be

achieved through a revolutionary overthrow of the capitalist system.

• It rejected the theory of gradual reform and cooperation with nonsocialist parties

in office. It reaffirmed the Marxist doctrine of the class struggle and the

inevitability of revolution.

• Its main concern was the prevention of all-out European war.

• World War I confronted the socialist parties in the belligerent countries with a

dilemma. Except for the Serbian and Russian socialists, all parties supported the

war efforts of their respective countries. This situation split the International.

Why did Marx's prophecy fail?

In fact, it was due to the specific strategy adopted by middle-class leadership.

• The bourgeoisie government of Western Europe adopted a seriesof welfare measures to

counter the Marxist challenge.

• In order to divert the attention of the people from class struggle, or internal issues to

external ones, imperialism was consciously promoted by the governments of western

Europe.

• There was a collaboration between the aristocratic class and middle class against the

proletariat class and through their combined efforts, the situation of Marxist revolution

was averted.