Paper 2›World History›Imperialism and Colonialism

Imperialism and Colonialism

Colonialism and Imperialism

Colonialism appeared in the Early Modern era along with mercantilism. Its objective was

to promote the interest of the metropolitan state at the cost of the colony.

This ideology believed that the colony existed for the benefit of the metropolitan

state.

For example, the colonies were supposed to provide precious metals if possible or

to provide gifts in the form of commodity.

There is much controversy about the specific nature of colonialism and imperialism and

the relationship between the two.

According to one definition, colonialism implies an attitude while imperialism

denotes physical control.

Other definitions differentiate imperialism from neo-imperialism, which started

after 1870, as a consequence of industrialisation.

But this definition is not convincing. In fact, the term 'Imperialism' isof late origin.

Even Marx did not use this term in his writing till his death in 1883. However, by

the end of the 19 th century, the term became very common among European

Intellectuals.

First Phase of Colonialism

Factors/Causes:

Expansion of Europe started after geographical discoveries.

After the decline of Constantinople in 1453, sea voyages started in order to find

out an alternative route to India.

Factors like renaissance and reformation encouraged the zeal of the people for

expansion.

Furthermore,sometechnologicaladvancementsin shippingindustries i.e.,theuse

of compass and astrolabe encouraged the process of discovery.

There were three major factors, "Gold, Glory and God".

Glory: In the process of discovery, Spain and Portugal took the initiative. From the

rubble of feudalism, there was rise of national monarchies who started to support

sea voyages.

God: They were given ideological support even by Pope of Rome, as the discovery

was associated with a religious issue as well.

Gold: Apart fromthat, the European economywas expanding andthere was a rise

in the consumer-class for luxury goods. This phenomenon also encouraged the

process of colonisation.Africa and Slave Trade

From the 15 th c. onwards, Europeans colonized the coastal regions of Africa.
From Africa, they exploited some commodities like slaves, gold, black pepper, etc., but

most importantly European powers were in search of slaves.

Although it was Arabian people who started the slave trade, the Europeans

broughttheslavetradetoitsclimax.Almostallthe Europeancountrieslike Britain,

France, Holland, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, etc. were involved in the slave trade.

Development of Slave Trade:

Portuguese Discovery

▪ 1441: Portuguese explorers capture the first African slaves on the West

African coast, marking the beginning of the European involvement in the

transatlantic slave trade.

▪ 1482: The Portuguese establish Elmina Castle on the Gold Coast (modern-

day Ghana) as a trading post for slaves and gold.

The demand for labor in the sugar plantations and mines in the Americas,

particularly the Caribbean and Brazil, intensified this demand.

▪ 1518: Spain officially authorizes the African slave trade to its American

colonies.

▪ 1626: The Dutch establish New Amsterdam (later New York) as a major

slave trading port.

▪ 1672: The Royal African Company is established in England to control the

English slave trade.

By 1700 s: The transatlantic slave trade reaches its peak, with millions of Africans

transported to the Americas as forced labor.

Triangular Trade:

In fact, Europeans developed a

triangular trade among three

continents such as Europe, Africa, and

America.

European ships carried manufactured

goods to Africa, traded these goods for

enslaved Africans, transported them to

the Americas, where they were sold as

laborers, and then carried American products (like sugar, tobacco, and cotton)

back to Europe.

European powers established forts and trading posts along the African coast to

facilitatethecaptureandtransportationofslaves.Thesefortsservedaskeypoints

in the slave trade network.

The slave trade was a very sad story

in European colonialism.

One human being was

treated as an animal by

other human beings.

About 1.3 crore Africans

were sold in international

market as slaves.o Condition of enslaved Africans

▪ Enslaved Africans endured brutal conditions during the Middle Passage,

the transatlantic voyage. Crowded and unsanitary conditions,

malnutrition, disease, and physical abuse were common, leading to high

mortality rates.

▪ Slaves in the Americas were subjected to harsh and brutal conditions on

plantations,mines,andotherlabor-intensiveindustries.Theyweretreated

as property and had no legal rights.

Negative impact on Africa:

▪ The slave trade had devastating effects on African societies. It caused

death of millions of Africans. It resulted in widespread violence, disrupted

local economies, and created political instability as African leaders often

collaborated with European slave traders in capturing slaves.

▪ The forced migration of millions of Africans led to a significant loss of

human capital on the continent. Communities were torn apart, and skilled

individuals were often taken, leaving a long-lasting impact.

Abolitionism and emancipation: It continued for almost three centuries as a profitable

business.

Reasons:

▪ Enlightenment Ideals: The Enlightenment era in Europe promoted ideas of

human rights, freedom, and equality, which laid the intellectual

groundwork for the eventual abolition of the slave trade.

▪ Economic factor: So far as it was profitable, European intellectuals

supported it. When the industrial revolution started, it produced a new

requirement of skilled labour and slaves had no place in it.

Milestones:

▪ In 1791, the Haitian Revolution began, ultimately leading to the abolition

of slavery in the French colony in 1794.

▪ Banning of the slave trade: 1792 Denmark-Norway, 1807 British (only

trade), 1833 British, 1848 French, 1865 USA

Still, Europeans were not satisfied, they created a new system in place - called

indentured labour.Americas

North America Latin America

Discovery • Columbus, Spanish sailor, accidentally discovered America in 1492.

But he remained under confusion as if he had discovered India. In

1513, Spanish explorer de León landed in Florida. It was the first

contact with north American continent.

Colonization Spain tried to colonise Northern

Americaaswell,butitdidnotget

success due to the resistance by

the Red Indians. So, later, this

responsibility was taken by

Britain, France and Holland.

Britain colonised 13 settlements

in Northern America, France

developed Canada and even

Holland captured some regions

there.

1607: English established the

Jamestown colony in

Virginia.

1620: Pilgrims, English

religious separatists, arrived

on the Mayflower and

founded Plymouth Colony

(Massachusetts).

1626: Dutch purchased

Manhattan Island from

Indigenous people,

establishing New

Amsterdam (New York City).

Spain started colonisation of America

and it colonised a major part of it.

Likewise, Portugal colonised Brazil in

Latin America.

1520 s: Hernán Cortés led the

Spanishexpeditionthatresultedin

the fall of the Aztec Empire

(Mexico).

1530 s: Francisco Pizarro

conquered the Inca Empire (Peru).

Latin America became a very

important source for procuring

silver.

Apartfromthe supplyofsilver and

gold, America continued to supply

plantation products as well.

Plantation agriculture was

supportedbythe importof

African slaves.

Portuguese introduced

coffee in 1727.

Decolonization 1763: Chief Pontiac of the

Ottawa tribe leads protest

against the British

1776: Declaration of

Independence

1838: Trail of tears. Thousands

of native Americans were forced

to migrate westwards.

1821: Simon Bolivar leads Venezuela

to independenceSouth Africa

1488: Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias sailed around the southern tip of Africa,

which he named the Cape of Good Hope, opening up a sea route to the East.

Dutch colonized Cape Region

The first European settlement in southern Africa was established by the Dutch East

India Company in Table Bay (Cape Town) in 1652.

Created to supply passing ships with fresh produce, the colony grew rapidly as Dutch

farmers settled to grow crops.

Shortly afterwards, slaves were imported from East Africa, Madagascar and the East

Indies.

Conflict with natives: From the 1770 s, colonists came into contact and inevitable

conflict with Bantu-speaking chiefdoms. A century of intermittent warfare ensued

during which the colonist's gained ascendancy over the Bantu-speaking chiefdoms.

British Occupation:

In 1795, the British occupied the Cape as a strategic base against the French,

controlling the sea route to the East.

Boers Displaced:

Throughout the 1800 s, the boundaries of European influence spread eastwards.

However, British couldn't tolerate such strategic points in the control of other

colonizers.

Boers were moved by British incoming and gradually moved inwards, towards north-

east. In the 1830 s they developed and established two independent republics in

Transvaaland the Orange Free State,which Britainwasforcedtorecogniseinthe early

1850 s.

Discovery of diamond and gold

Diamonds were discovered near Kimberley in 1867.
Discovery of the Witwatersrand goldfields in 1886
1877-1880: British defeated Zulu kingdom (Anglo-Zulu War)
Cecil Rhodes who took aggressive stance.
Demand for franchise rights for English immigrant miners/labours was used as a

pretext to wage Boer wars (1880-81, 1899-1902) and defeated the Dutch.

An Afrikaner child in a British concentration camp, South Africa

Union of South Africa

British formed a unitary state for the four colonies of the Cape, Natal, Orange Free

State, and Transvaal, in 1910, which became a member of Commonwealth in 1931.

It excluded indigenous Africans from all aspects of political/social life.Australia and New Zealand

Discovery • The first known landing in Australia by Europeans was in 1606 by

Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon.

In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia

and claimed it for Great Britain. He returned to London with accounts

favouring colonisation at Botany Bay (now in Sydney).

Colonization British colonization:

The First Fleet of British ships with convicts arrived at Botany Bay in

1788 to establish a penal colony.

The traditional view is that Britain thereby sought to relieve the

pressure upon its prisons, intensified by the loss of its American

colonies. But some historians argue about sea power in the eastern

seas or economic exploitation of the area.

1801: Matthew Flinders circumnavigates and then names it Australia

(southern)

1830-1860: Major Shift

There was a problem of food scarcity. So, British sent army to colonize

interior and start agriculture.

Australian Agricultural Company (1824) established Brisbane.
Soon, Gold rushes and agricultural industries brought prosperity.
Conflict with natives: Unlike American native, the aboriginal people in

Australia were not so fearsome or warring, they were also greatly

diminished by introduced diseases and conflict.

Maori Uprising 1840 s
There was conflict between free citizens and criminals. Transportation

of British convicts to Australia was phased out from 1840 to 1868. In

1868, transportation of prisoners ends.

1890: Autonomous parliamentary democracies began to be

established throughout the six British colonies from the mid-19 th c.

Emergence of Federation of several democratic colonies in 1901.Asia
Discovery of India led to the colonisation of Asia, but Europeans adopted a different

strategy in context of Asia.

In the American continent, the original civilizations were virtually wiped out by

Europeans. More than guns, it was epidemics which proved decisive.

In Asia however, some powerful states like Mughals, Vijayanagara, Manchu

empire existed, which could not be coercively subdued by the Europeans. Here,

Europeansenteredasmerchantsandpetitioners.Itwasonlyduringlatercenturies

when Asian powersdisintegrated andthatcreated apower vacuum that wasfilled

up by Europeans.

It was the Portuguese who took initiative in the colonisation of Asia, and they were

involved mainly in the spice trade. They created monopoly over sea (as existing strong

land-based empires wouldn't give opportunity). But very soon the Dutch, British and

French replaced them.

Collapse

Thiscolonialismreacheditsclimaxby the 18 th century.Afterthat,itreceivedaseriousjolt.

The year 1776 provedabigchallengetomercantilism and colonialism because on the one

hand there wasthe publication of the famoustext of Adam Smith "Wealth of Nations" on

the other there was the American war of Independence. Both put a question mark on the

policy of mercantilism.

American war of Independence proved that colonization is a financially losing

business. After 1815, under the leadership of Simon Bolivar, these colonies got

independence.In 1852,British Prime Minister Disraelideclaredthatthesecolonies

are just like stones which are hanging in our neck.

Furthermore, some of the important scholars of that time like Adam Smith,

Richard Cobden and even James Mill started an ideological battle against

mercantilism and colonialism.

So, naturally, during this period European nations developed a sense of disenchantment

with colonialism.Second Phase: Neo-imperialism

Classical Imperialism Neo-imperialism

16 th - 19 th centuries • Revival from 1870 s
Mercantile empires (e.g. slave trade,

mining, plantation)

Characterized by financial domination

and cultural conquest rather than direct

territorial conquest. (spheres of

influence)

Americas, coastal Africa, Australia, Asia • China, Japan, SE Asia, Africa, Egypt etc.
Typically imposed colonial governments

(direct domination of foreign territories)

Allowed degree of local autonomy while

retaining economic control

Decline in the 19 th c. - USA

independence, Simon Bolivar's

liberation movement

Declined after World War 2

The new imperialism, that started in 1870 s marked the end of vacillation over the choice of

imperialist military and political policies. All the leading industrial nations made similar

decisions to push imperialist programs to the forefront over a relatively short period.

Theexplanationforthisisdebatedamonghistorians,esp.withrespecttothedegreeto which

it was the product of the developed capitalist system. Although there are a multitude of

factors involved; economic, political, military, and ideological, the problem, however, is one

of assigning priority to causes.

British Empire in the late nineteenth centuryEconomic Imperialism

(A) The father of the economic interpretation of the new

imperialismwas the British liberal economist John Atkinson

Hobson. In his famous text 'Imperialism: A Study' (1902),

he linked this phenomenon to the excessive profit-making

by the capitalist class.

As per Hobson, financial interest of the capitalist class was "the

governor of the imperial engine."

"Taproot of imperialism" is not in nationalist pride, but

in capitalist oligarchy.

Imperialism is not only unnecessary and immoral, but also the

result of the mis-distribution of wealth in a capitalist society.

The profiteering capitalist class deprives labor of its due share in profit. So, the

purchasing power of the labour classdeclines.Asa result of this,the home market

of a nation shrinks.

However, as the capitalist class cannot curtail the production, their search for new

markets leads to the rise of Imperialism.

According to Hobson, a better remedy is to make an economic redistribution in that

nation. It could lead to the expansion of the home market, so there could be no need for

imperialist expansion.

(B) Lenin's 'Imperialism, the Highest stage of Capitalism' (1917)

Lenin also linked this imperialism to capitalism.
Lenin's thesis

Capitalism changed its nature in the late 19 th century;

and this happened at pretty much at the same time in

several leading capitalist nations. There was the rise of

monopoly capitalism.

▪ It was a more advanced stage in which finance

capital (an alliance between large industrial and

banking firms), dominates the economic and

political life of society.

▪ Competition continues, but among a relatively

small numberofgiantswho are ableto control large sectorsof thenational

and international economy.▪ The rivalry amongmonopolycapitalist nations fosters imperialism; and in

turn, the imperialism stimulates monopoly capitalism and its influence on

society further.

To avertthesituation of labourunrest/movementdomestically,western capitalists

preferred to go to the colonial exploitation. So, for the time being, they stopped

the exploitation of their own labour, rather they shared some profit from their

colonial expansion.

Corollaries:

Socialists in various countries abandoned internationalism for the sake of

patriotism.

▪ Lenin gave a warning to the working class that due to imperialistic rivalry

there would be an all-European war in which workers would be the worst

sufferers.

Lenin also charted outa strategyfor the proletariatclass that thiswar would prove

the crisis in capitalism. So, the proletariat class should benefit from the situation,

use this opportunity, and seize the power when capitalism would be at its most

vulnerable point.

Lenin linked Imperialism to financial capitalism as well. Lenin made Marxism

relevant to colonial societies by calling the colonial people as a new proletariat.

Although Lenin's theory is not without criticism, at the least we can't deny the fact that

the industrial revolution played a major role in the rise of neo-imperialism.

(1919)

Capitalism in its purest form is antithetical to imperialism: it thrives

best with peace and free trade. However, monopoly capitalism

creates a powerful social group that pressurizes for exclusive control

in colonies, to maximize profits.

Monopoly capitalism is an artificial graft on the more natural

competitive capitalism. It is due to the residue from the preceding

feudal society.

Schumpeter argued thatmonopoly capitalism can only grow

and prosper under the protection of high tariff walls.

Without that shield, there would be large-scale industry but

no cartels/monopolies.

Tariff walls are erected by political decisions, and thus it is

the state and not a natural economic process that promotes

monopoly. (elite manipulation of political process)

Therefore, it is in the nature of the state that the cause of imperialism lies.• Imperialism in modern times is affected by capitalism, and capitalism itself is modified by

the imperialist experience. In Schumpeter's analysis, however, imperialism is not an

inevitable product of capitalism.

Other contributing factors

Sense of ultranationalism
Colonialpossessionwassocialprestigeandthusprovidedasenseofnationalglory

as well. For example, the

British declared that there is no sunset in our empire.
Germany gave a counter declaration - we also need land under the sun.

Social imperialism:
Governments justified the colonization of other countries to benefit their own

citizens.

Distraction away from domestic issues: Most of the countries were worried about

the progress of the socialist/communist parties which promoted class conflict. So,

as a countermeasure, the western power preferred to export this conflict from

internalto external front,so thatthe attention ofthepeoplefromdomesticissues

could be diverted to the external front.

Coined by left-wing German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler.
Social Darwinism - Herber Spencer (Racial superiority)
Social Darwinism applies Darwin's theory of evolution to human societies. It

argued that the strong and successful will naturally rise to the top, while the weak

and unsuccessful will be eliminated.

Social Darwinists often used this theory to justify imperialism. They argued that

nations were in competition with one another for resources, territory, and global

influence.European powers were more advancedand therefore had a rightto rule

over less advanced peoples.

Role of European diplomacy:
For example, Germany under Bismarck was inclined to prevent the conflict of

powers in Europe, so he consciously diverted European powers from Europe to

African continent.

Self-justification

▪ England, the desire for greater military security in the Mediterranean and India.

(Egypt and Cape regions on way to India).

▪ Initially there was less degree of control over colonies. However, once colonies

tried to be free through revolt, in course of suppression, the metropolitan state

preferred complete control over the colony. Eg Arabi Pasha revolt in Egypt.

Inthesearchforcolonies,even Christianmissionariesplayedsomerole.Theyencouraged

theirrespectivegovernmenttomakeexpansioninthenew region,wheretheycouldwork

for the spread Christianity.• They posed as if Christianity is the most progressive or developed religion. And

these native Africans, Asians etc need upliftment. By converting to Christianity,

Barbarous people would get deliverance.

Some critics therefore argued that Christianity acted as the advance guard (or

sometimes rear guard) of imperialism.

Role of Technology: Daniel Headrick attempts to illustrate the

significant role that technological advances played in European

imperialism during this period.

Steamboats, improved weaponry and malaria vaccination

(quinine).

Breakthroughs that allowed European nations -- Britain in

particular -- to get more use out of the colonies, like

railroads in India and the Suez Canal.

In this way, imperialism or neo-colonialism was the product of a complex process.Scramble for Africa

From the viewpoint of geographical distance, the African continent was much near to

Europe.Earlier,Europeanpowerssimplycolonized the coastal regionand keptthemselves

away from the interior part. Reasons being:

Prevalence of Malaria
Powery symmetry: Muskets were sold to Africans already.
In the 1870 s Africans controlled 90 percent of Africa. Any areas that were controlled by

European countries were on the coast. However, after 1880 s, African continent was

partitioned by Europeanpowers within a shortspan 20 years. Except Ethiopia and Liberia,

all the regions came swiftly under the control of European powers.

Reasons:
Need to conquer:
The industrial revolution created a situation

where European powers were in search of raw

materials as well as the market for

manufactured goods. That's why they divided

Africa so quickly.

Imperial Glory: European powers were

competing with each other for global influence,

and Africa was seen as a way to expand their

empires.

Strategic Rivalry: European powers saw Africa

as a strategic asset, and they wanted to control

it to prevent their rivals from gaining an

advantage.

Imperial Ideology: Many Europeans believed

that they had a moral duty to "civilize" Africa,

and they saw colonization as a way to achieve

this goal.

Ability to conquer:
Quinine
Machine Guns
Geographic Discovery - Stanley and Livingstone - Congo region
Berlin Conference
In fact,in 1884 therewastheconveningof the Berlin Conference under leadership

of Bismarck. This Congress regulated the colonization and trade, and apportioned

Africa among different European powers.

Conquest:
In order to successfully take over the continent, European powers constructed

railroads and sailed steamships on rivers into the interior. Soon, they established

control over trade.

In his classic work on

the Scramble,

Pakenham argues that

the Scramblefor Africa

was a result of a

combination of

factors, including

European imperialism,

economic

competition, and the

rise of nationalism.• Many African groups, such as the Ashanti, Fulani, Tuareg, Opobo, Nbele, and

Shona, fought to control their land. However, they were defeated by European

forces.

One exception was in northern Africa, where Italy tried to take control of Ethiopia.

The Ethiopians defeated the Italians in 1896.

Division

France: control over the major part

in North-West i.e. Tunisia, Algeria

etc.

Britain: control over the regions

near the river Nile.Shecaptured the

regions such as Egypt, Sudan,

Uganda and Kenya.

Italy: brought under control the

regions like Eritrea, Libya and

Somaliland.

Germany: Cameroon, Togoland,

Tanzania and Namibia.

Portuguese: Angola, Mozambique
Belgium: Congo
Impact:
The Scramblefor Africahadaprofoundimpacton Africa.Itledtothedisplacement

of millions of people, the destruction of traditional cultures, and the exploitation

of African resources.

The invading powers drew boundaries between their colonies with no thought of

the ethnic groups and kingdoms that already lived there.

Although after WWI, there was some hope for the liberation of the colonies, all the hopes

were belied when the imperialist powers not simply celebrated their victory in WWI but

also consolidated their grip over the colonies. Only Egypt got liberation in 1922 but even

it got liberation only in name. So, this imperialist policy continued upto the WW 2.

The Belgian Congo was a particularly brutal example of European

colonialism. The Belgian King Leopold II ruled the Congo as his personal

fiefdom,andheforcedthe Congolesepeopletoworkinrubberplantations

under harsh conditions. Millions of Congolese people died as a result of

Leopold II's exploitation. Many atrocities were perpetrated in the Congo

Free State. Labourers who failed to meet rubber collection quotas were

punished by having their hands cut off.

New Imperialism (Neo-Imperialism)

Write a critical note on: Theory of 'The New imperialism' after 1870. [1981, 20 Marks]
"Imperialism and Colonialism have long employed as instruments of national policy."

Comment. [1982, 20 Marks]

"If imperialism is viewed as a phase of the struggle for power between States, its result

must be judged in terms of its role in power politics." Comment. [1984, 20 Marks]

"The simultaneous expansion of European powers overseas during the last quarter of

the 19 th century brought them into frequent collisions at a remote point all over Africa

and Asia." Comment. [2000, 20 Marks]

"New imperialism was a nationalistic, not an economic phenomenon." Comment.

[2007, 20 Marks]

Discuss the emergence of neo-imperialism in the late nineteenth century. [2009, 30

Marks]

"New imperialism was a nationalistic, not an economic phenomenon." Critically

examine. [2013, 25 Marks]

"The commercial and industrial interests created a veritable hothouse atmosphere in

Europe for the establishment of colonies." Critically examine. [2014, 10 Marks]

Africa

Generic
Write a critique on the partition of Africa from 1870 to 1914, with particular

reference to Germany's imperial designs in the Continent. [1989, 60 Marks]

Trace the stages in the partition of Africa after 1870. How did it affect

international relations? [1996, 60 Marks]

Trace the various stages of European imperialism in Africa in the nineteenth

century. [2001, 60 Marks]

"In all the long annals of Imperialism, the partition of Africa is a remarkable

freak." Comment. [2009, 20 Marks]

What do you understand by imperialism? State briefly its unique features in the

case of Africa? [2010, 20 Marks]

South Africa
Tracethegrowthof Britishimperialismin South Africafrom 1800 to 1907.[2016,

10 Marks]

"The British imperialism in South Africa from 1867 to 1902 was influenced to a

large extent by the capitalist mining of diamonds." [2023, 10 Marks]

Asia

What do you understand by Imperialism? How did it affect the people of Asia in the

19 th century? [1979, 60 Marks]

Indonesia

"Holland was engaged in a systematic exploitation of Indonesia in the

nineteenth century." Elucidate. [1979, 60 Marks]

What wasthe culture system in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) during the

19 th century? Why was it dismantled? [1981, 60 Marks]

Critically examine the culture system in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)

during the nineteenth century. Why was it dismantled? [1985, 60 Marks]

Critically examine the Dutch colonial policy in Indonesia. [2010, 30 Marks]
Examine the nature of Dutch imperialism in Indonesia. [2017, 10 Marks]

America

Explain how American imperialism in Philippines differed with European

imperialism in Indonesia and Indo-China. [2011, 30 Marks]

Discuss the nature of American overseas expansion in Asia and explain the

consequences. [2014, 10 Marks]

Malaya

Which factors would you attribute to the British colonial intervention in

Malaya in the 19 th century? How did Malays react to British colonial rule?

[2019, 20 Marks]

Scramble for Africa

Dark Continent
In the 1870 s Africans controlled 90% of Africa.
Earlier, European powers simply colonized the

coastalregionandkeptthemselvesawayfrom the

interior part. Reasons being:

Prevalence of Malaria
Difficult river navigation
Powery symmetry

Muskets were sold to Africans

already.

Gunpowder used by European

used to become dysfunctional in

extremely humid climate of Africa.

Most of the areas away from the coast were

unexplored and thus, it was known as Dark

Continent.

However, after 1880 s, African continent was partitioned

by European powerswithin a short span 20 years. Except

Ethiopia and Liberia, all the regions came swiftly under

the control of European powers.

Reasons:
Need to conquer:
Theindustrialrevolutioncreatedasituation where Europeanpowers were

in search of raw materials as well as the market for manufactured goods.

That's why they divided Africa so quickly.

Imperial Glory: European powers were competing with each other for

global influence, and Africa was seen as a way to expand their empires.

At that time. the prestige of nation in Europe was measured on

basis of the extent of colonial empire.

Strategic Rivalry:Europeanpowers saw Africaasastrategicasset,andthey

wanted to control it to prevent their rivals from gaining an advantage.

Imperial Ideology: Many Europeansbelievedthattheyhadamoraldutyto

"civilize" Africa, and they saw colonization as a way to achieve this goal.

Ability to conquer:
Quinine
Machine Guns
The invention of percussion cap in 1860 made the guns moisture proof the

sealed Cartridges could be used even under water.

Geographic Discovery Congo region

In his classic work on the

Scramble,Pakenhamargues

that the Scramble for Africa

was a result of a

combination of factors,

including European

imperialism, economic

competition, and the rise of

nationalism.

In 1865 Belgian king Leopold II sent Livingstone & Stanley to navigate Africa.
Thepersonalcolonizationeffortsof King Leopold IIof Belgiuminthe Congoregion,

initiated through the establishment of the Congo Free State, highlighted the

increasing competition among European powers for African territories and

resources.

By 1884 almost whole of African continent was successfully mapped.
Berlin Conference
Infact,in 1884th e Berlin Conferencewasconvenedunderleadershipof Bismarck.
This Congress regulated navigation and trade, created free trade zones, and

apportioned Africa among different European powers, even before the actual

conquest.

Ontheonehand,theconferencehelpedtoreducetensionsbetween the European

powers and to establish some basic rules for European colonization in Africa. On

theotherhand,theconferenceledtotheexploitationof Africanresourcesand the

colonization of African peoples.

In other parts of world, European colonizers fought for every inch of land but in

Africa boundaries were decided peacefully at Berlin conference.

Notably,the conference lacked theparticipationof Africanleaders,reflectingthe

disregard for African sovereignty and self-determination in the colonial decision-

making process.

Natural frontiers were used to draw political boundaries without any attention

paid to ground realities. The African tribes were divided into two or more parts

they were placed in different European powers.

Conquest: The process of African colonization was extremely rapid after Berlin

conference of 1884-85, almost whole of African continent was colonized by European

power within a period of less than 30 years. At the time of commencement of WWI in

1914 only Liberia and Ethiopia were independent territories in entire Africa.

In order to successfully take over the continent, European powers constructed

railroads and sailed steamships on rivers into the interior. Soon, they established

control over trade.

Many Africantribalgroups,suchasthe Ashanti,Fulani,Tuareg,Opobo,Nbele,and

Shona, fought to control their land. However, they were defeated by European

forces.

Oneexceptionwasinnorthern Africa,where Italytriedtotakecontrolof Ethiopia.

The Ethiopians defeated the Italians in 1896.

Division

France: control over the major

part in North-West i.e. Tunisia,

Algeria etc.

Britain:controlovertheregions

near the river Nile. She

captured the regions such as

Egypt, Sudan, Uganda and

Kenya.

Italy: brought under control the

regions like Eritrea, Libya and

Somaliland.

Germany: Cameroon,

Togoland, Tanzania and

Namibia.

Portuguese: Angola,

Mozambique

Belgium: Congo
Impact:
The Scramble for Africa had a profound impact on Africa. It led to the

displacementofmillionsofpeople,thedestructionoftraditionalcultures,andthe

exploitation of African resources.

Although after WWI,there was some hope forthe liberation of the colonies, all the hopes

were belied when the imperialist powers not simply celebrated their victory in WWI but

also consolidated their grip over the colonies. Only Egypt got liberation in 1922 but even

it got liberation only in name. So, this imperialist policy continued upto the WW 2.

The Belgian Congo was a particularly brutal example of European

colonialism. The Belgian King Leopold II ruled the Congo as his

personal fiefdom, and he forced the Congolese people to work in

rubber plantations under harsh conditions. Millions of Congolese

people died as a result of Leopold II's exploitation. Many atrocities

were perpetrated in the Congo Free State. Labourers who failed to

meet rubber collection quotas were punished by having their hands

cut off.

South East Asia

The search for colonies continued even in the Asia-Pacific region. SE Asia was rich in oil,

minerals, agricultural products. The lands of SE Asia were perfect for plantation farming of

sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, rubber, coconut, pineapple, and bananas. As the demand for

these products increased, so did the competition among Europeans to control this area.

By the 19 th century, there were no more Mughals and Manchus to halt their progress. So, ,

using political vacuum, they expanded their

trade and colonized the region.

Holland captured the region of Indonesia

(East Indies).

Britain captured Srilanka, Burma, Malaya

and Singapore.

France captured Indo-China (Vietnam etc).
Only Siam (Thailand) remained

independent.

Germans took over New Guinea and

Soloman Islands.

America put its hold over Philippines.
Japan captured Manchuria and Taiwan.

So, the imperialist expansion was going on in this era of Imperialism.

Dutch East Indies (1799-1949)

In the 19 th century, the Dutch developed a veryexploitative system known as 'Dutch Culture

System' (Cultuurstelsel, 1830-77). It was institutionalized by Johannes, van den Bosch.

Earlierthepeasantsusedtopaytaxinkind,intheformofpaddy,totherulers.Now,Dutch

government made it mandatory for every peasant to produce cash crops

(coffee/sugarcane/indigo) on some part of the land. (1/5 th land at village level)

This whole produce of sugarcane and coffee was to be given to the government in the

form of tax, without any return.

Since sugarcane couldn't directly be exported. So, many sugar mills were built. Here,

peasants were supposed to provide free labour for 1/5 th of the year (66 days), just like

bonded labour, if they didn't own the land. It was a sort of modern slavery was imposed

on the peasants of Indonesia by Dutch.

In practice the system was burdensome.

More than one-fifth of the rice fields were used for the growing of export crops.
Considerably more than 66 days of labour were required of the landless.
Production was also demanded of the people who had paid taxes by working

under the Culture System.

In case of crop failure, the people were left responsible for the loss.
The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in

the 1840 s. According to one estimate, the mortality rates increased by asmuch as

30% during this period.

It brought significant returns to the Dutch government. It extracted vast riches of the

export crops, added about 50% of the national revenue, and promoted Dutch commerce

and shipping.

Opposition:

By the second half of the 19 th century, criticism started everywhere, esp. in the capital city.

Here, initiative was taken by some Christian missionaries to speak out against it. one of the

most outspoken critics was Multatuli (pseudonym of Dutch writer Eduard Douwes Dekker),

who condemned the system in his book Max Havelaar (1860).

With mounting criticism, finally the government decided to abolish the system and introduce

a new system in Dutch Ethical System in 1877.

Now, the declared objective was to develop Indonesia, build schools and hospitals and

make it economically self-reliant, politically representative.

So, Dutch govt encouraged production of some local products like tin, rubber etc

which would help Indonesian people to earn profit.

They were given education so that they could properly evaluate the value of

labour and value of products.

Furthermore, Indonesians were given some political representation by forming a

sort of Assembly. (local autonomy)

However, on close observation, one realizes that, although it appeared like extension of

some welfare measures, the real objective was to win over heart and minds in order to

perpetuate the colonial rule. So, basic objective was the extend the grip of Holland over

Indonesia.

Consequences:

This policy led to the development of a Dutch school and a further penetration of

the Western economic system in the rural areas.

Rapid social dislocation eventually manifested itself in the form of unrest.
It caused the Dutch authorities to reconsider the Ethical Policy program. It was

abolished in 1926-27 after Indonesian Communist Uprisings.

American Imperialism

America has always tried to

appear/project a different image from

that of its European counterparts. It

believes that Europeans are colonizers,

but they are not. It believed that since it

was the first colony to get liberation

("first new nation"), it is like an elder

brother to all those who followed. In this

way, Americans tried to prove

themselves as exception.

19 th c. Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny:

Early stages of American imperialism were characterized by territorial expansion

and the acquisition of new territories.

▪ Louisiana Purchase in 1803.

▪ Annexation of Texas. (defeat of Mexico in 1840 s/50 s)

▪ Alaska (1867): America purchased Alaska from Russia and thus extended

its territory to far northeast.

The concept of "Manifest Destiny" contributed to the belief that the United States

had a divine mission to expand its influence across the North American continent.

Latin America:

Munroe doctrine (1823)

▪ Itdeclaredthat the United Stateswouldopposeany Europeaninterference

in the Americas.

▪ This doctrine stopped European powers from entering western

hemisphere and established the United States as the dominant power

there.

Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a significant turning point, leading to the

acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico and Cuba.

Roosevelt Corollary (1904): More interventionist approach

▪ The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in Latin America.

▪ It asserted the United States' right to intervene in the affairs of Latin

Americancountriestomaintainstabilityandprotectitseconomicinterests.

Dollar Diplomacy: Interventions in Latin America, Caribbean and SE Asia.

▪ Interventionistforeignpolicyduringthepresidencyof William Howard Taft

(1909-1913).

▪ It marked a shift from the military interventionism of the preceding

Roosevelt Corollary to a focus on economic expansion and investment to

promote American interests and gain market access. Financial assistance,

aid, loans, subsidies etc were used to stabilize the region, foster closer

economic ties and extend political influence.

Good Neighbor Policy (1934-1945) was a period of relative non-intervention in

Latin America.

East Asia

Hawaii

▪ US interest started in 1790 s as Hawaii was a port of ships enroute to East

Asia. (strategic location)

▪ In 1820 s, the sugar cane plantation changed Hawaiian economy. By 1850 s,

American sugar plantation accounted for 75% of Hawaiian wealth.

▪ Till 1890, there was a tariff on sugar which made Hawaiian sugar cheaper

than foreign sugar. However, Mc Kinley Tariff Act eliminated tariff on

foreign sugar. The loss of revenue promoted the business leaders to push

for annexation of Hawaii.

▪ Queen Liliuokalani called for anew constitutionto increaseher power and

reduce the power of plantation owners. This was a bid for independence.

To stop Hawaii from gaining political power, the US businessmen removed

the queen. In 1894, Stanford Dole became the president of the Republic of

Hawaii. And then he annexed it to America. In 1898.

Japan:

▪ Already covered

China and Open Door Policy (1899):

▪ It aimed to secure equal trading rights in China. Thus, it promoted Free

Trade.

▪ Americaalsotriedtopreventthecolonizationof Chinaby Europeanpowers

(Britain, France, Germany etc). It protected China's territorial integrity.

▪ Thus, it was a shift towards a more assertive approach to global trade.

Philippines

▪ Spanish-American War (1898): A pivotal moment

It resulted in the acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico,

Guam, and the Philippines.

Cuba was already under Monroe doctrine.
But Philippines was a new addition.

It effectively established the US as a global power with overseas

possessions.

The war also reflected the growing influence of naval power and

the desire for overseas markets.

▪ Philippines as a colony:

The American imperialism in Philippines was unique in many ways

because American helped Philippines in getting independence

from Spanish rule.

American imperialism was guided by strategic interest rather than

anyeconomicgains Philippineswascapturedby USAtocounter the

rise of Japan. The hostility b/w USA and Japan was going on since

the Meiji Restoration.

After liberating Philippines, USA didn't leave it. Rather they stayed

there, claiming the duty to work for development.

Thus, Americans developed new model of colonization - it is not a

colonybut adivinedutyasa white man to develop and civilize.This

is American neo-colonialism.

Collapse

All of this culminated in the First World War. But even the World War didn't give a jolt to it.

Finally, after the WW 2, gradually the process of decolonization started.

Impact of the First World War on West Asia and the Arab world

New political tremors in Arabian world created background for Arab nationalism.

The contradictory condition created by the three treaties:

Hussain-Mc Mahon Agreement: British concluded a secret treaty with Arab leaders like

Hussain,Grand Sherifof Mecca,andhisson Faisal. Theyweretoorganizearevolt against

Turkey. And as a reward after the war, they would get a unified Arab nation.

Arab nationalism emerged during opening decade of 19 th century. By the First

World War, Arab Nationalism had assumed its embryonic form (nascent phase),

and the British decided to exploit it to their benefit.

Emergence of Arab Nationalism:

▪ Ideas of Arab Nationalism revolved around common language, culture,

literature & religion. Being an original homeland of Islam, Muslim Prophet

Muhammad as well as other Caliphs, Arab region has a distinct cultural

identity. However, the region was under the control of Ottoman Turks. As

the Ottoman Empire entered the First World War in 1914, the loyalty of

Arabs could no longer be taken for granted, for two reasons.

The first was the growth of a nascent Arab nationalism that drew

inspiration from 19 th-century Western ideas.

Some Arabs looked to the nationalist movements of the

Slavic (and mostly Christian) minorities of the Ottoman

Balkan territories, which had, by the end of 1912, all won

their independence.

This Arab nationalism was largely fostered by educated

urban elites - intellectuals, civil servants and former or

serving officers in the Ottoman Army - living in great Arab

cities like Damascus and Baghdad.

The second unsettling factor was the completion in 1908 of the

Hejaz railway, which provided a direct link between Medina

and Damascus, greatly facilitating Ottoman access to the Arabian

interior.

This intrusion was especially resented by the Hashemite

clan. The clan's leader in 1914 was

61-year-old Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, a

regional figure of considerable

standing and political acumen.

▪ By 1914 unrest was high among the tribes of the

central Arabian interior. The Ottoman Empire's

entry into the First World War in November 1914

provided the final spark for outright revolt.

The British Government seized this opportunity and

encouraged the latent Arab national sentiment against the

Ottoman Sultan.

▪ Britain was worried that Ottomans might block Suez canal route towards

India.

▪ Britain hatched a conspiracy and

created a plan with the help of a

British officer there named

Lawrence. With his encouragement,

the Arabs began to express

themselves as a nationally conscious

people. Colonel Lawrence became

friendly with Emir Faisal, a son of

Hussein of Mecca and with the

Arabs, in general.

▪ Arab Revolt of 1916-1918: Onreceiving Britishequipment and funding,the

Arabs under Hussein, the Sharif of Mecca, broke out in revolt and Faisal

captured Aaaba and Mean. He entered Damascus in October 1918, at the

same time as the British.

Sykes-Picot Agreement: It was a secret treaty between Britain and France that run

counter to the earlier agreement.

Two spheres of influence:

▪ Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine under British influence

▪ Syria and Lebanon under French influence

Belfour Declaration: In 1917 Britain gave a promise to Jews for the creation of a separate

nation in Palestine.

▪ It stated that the British government supported "the establishment in

Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people". From the

Mediterranean to the eastern flank of the River Jordan, an area which

came to be known as Palestine.

▪ At the same time, it said that

nothing should "prejudice the

civil and religious rights of

existing non-Jewish

communities".

▪

All the three treaties/declarations were mutually

contradictory.

The outcome of the Paris Peace Conference:

After the first world war, Arab Nationalism was

cheated in Paris Peace Conference when, in

place of a single Arab nation, multiple Arabian

states were created.

Some regions were colonized by Britain

and France under the cover of the

mandate system.

Syria and Lebanon were put

under French mandate.

Direct control of Britain over Iraq

and Transjordan. Although the

independence of Hejaz was

recognized, Palestine was put

under a British mandate. None of

them was accorded complete

freedom.

▪ Hussein as the ruler of Hedjaz

▪ His third son Faisal as the ruler of Iraq

▪ His other son Abdullah as the ruler of Transjordan.

All this cheating created anger among Arabs against the western powers. This

arrangement betrayed Arab Nationalism.

Lord Balfour was given a hero's

welcome bythe Jewish communityin

Jerusalem in 1925

British Colonies and Mandates: Post War Trajectory

Iraq:

▪ In 1921, Faisal, who was a popular regional leader, was appointed as the ruler of

Iraq. He introduced a spirit of confidence among the Iraqis and made them

stronger.

▪ Because of his leadership, he emerged as a strong leader and, after continuous

agitations, British were compelled to leave Iraq by 1932. (although they remained

in supervisory role till WW 2)

Jordan

▪ Abdulla,theyoungerbrotherof Faisal,wasdeclaredtobetherulerof Transjordan.

▪ He was mostly assisted by British officials to exert greater administrative

efficiency. Abdullah, in a similar way to Hussein of Hedjaz, was immensely

indebted to the British.

Saudi Arabia: Hussain was appointed as the ruler of Hejaz.

▪ Hussaincouldnotemergeasverycapablerulerandkeptlookingat Britishsupport.

So, in Hejaz, among local people, a reaction set in against the excessive

intervention of the British in the region.

▪ This sentiment was exploited by a rising leader Ibn Saud.

He raised the banner of revolt and captured power in 1932. So, practically

as a nation, Saudi Arabia emerged in 1932.

Yemen

▪ North Yemen was already declared independent in 1918.

▪ South Yemen remainedunder British ruletill

1967.

Palestine-Israel Issue: British drive to give a

homeland to Jews in Palestine region created a

permanent conflict in Palestine region.

Overview of Oil Imperialism

Oil imperialism became prevalent since the early 20 th

century when oil began to play a critical role in the global

economy and in the military strategies of many nations.

The rise of oil as a critical resource: In the early 20 th

century, oil emerged as a critical resource for

industrialization, transportation, and military power.

Thisledtoa growingdemandforoil,aswellasincreased

competition among countries to control oil resources.

Discoveryand Exploration: Duringthe 1920 s and 1930 s,

European and American companies discovered

enormous oil deposits in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and

Kuwait.Geologistslaterlearnedthatthelandaround the

Persian Gulf has nearly two-thirds of the world's known

supply of oil.

Because oil brought huge profits, Western nations tried to dominate this region.

Overtime, Oil imperialism took many forms, including direct control over oil

resources through military intervention or through the establishment of puppet

regimes, as well as more indirect control through economic and political

pressure.

European powers, particularly Britain and France, were eager to control the oil

resources of the Middle East. This led to the establishment of oil companies that

were controlled by European interests.

Conflict between the western companies and the petroleum-producing nations.

The profits from oil production were largely repatriated to Europe, while the Arab

people saw little benefit from the oil wealth of their own lands. This led to

resentment and anger among Arabs, who felt that they were being exploited by

European powers.

Oil imperialism played a significant role in the growth of Arab nationalism. It

helped to create a common enemy in the form of European powersand to solidify

the sense of Arab identity.

Arab nationalists argued that the oil wealth of the Middle East should be used to

benefit the Arab people, rather than being exploited by European powers. They

called for the nationalization of oil companies and for the use of oil profits to

develop Arab economies and societies.

During World Wars

After the war, the victorious powers imposed harsh reparations on Germany,

including control over its oil resources, which helped to cement the power of the

multinational oil companies.

During World War I, the British and French empires fought to gain control over oil

resources in the Middle East, while in World War II, the United States and its allies

relied heavily on oil to power their war efforts.

During Cold War

United States used its economic and military power to gain control over oil

resources in the Middle East and other regions, while the Soviet Union sought to

gain influence in these regions through its own alliances and economic

agreements.

First problem started in Iran itself.

▪ There was a government presided over by Mossadegh (1951-53). He was

irritatedatthe dishonestroleof Anglo-Iranian company.So,heinitiated its

nationalization.

▪ It led to panic among all European governments that it might encourage

other nations to follow, and all western powers might be forced to exit the

region. Thus, the USA intervened in 1953 and toppled Mossadegh

government, and established Raza Shah Pahlavi's puppet government.

Then the deep-seated enmity between Iran and USA started here

which has continued for last nine decades.

▪ This Raza Shah government had a westernized outlook. Like Kemal Pasha

in Turkey, such westernization was encouraged by Shah government.

Unfortunately, although Kemal Pasha used to enjoy goodwill of people

(title of Ataturk) but in case of Reza Shah, he was considered stooge and

puppet by Iranians.

▪ People successfully revolted finally against it under the leadership of a

Muslim cleric Khomeni in 1979.

This is a landmark event in the history - Iranian Revolution of 1979.

It started a direct conflict with USA. Drama didn't end their - there

was hostage crisis for 2.5 years…

OPEC and the oil crises of the 1970 s:

▪ In the 1960 s and 1970 s, major oil-producing countries, particularly those

in the Middle East, began to organize themselves into the Organization of

Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1960 represented a significant

shift in the global oil market.

▪ OPECmembercountries,whichcontrolledasignificantshareoftheworld's

oil reserves, began to use their collective economic power to demand

greatercontrolovertheproductionandpricingofoil.Through OPEC,these

countries sought to gain greater control over the price and production of

oil, leading to a series of oil crises in the 1970 s that had significant

economic and geopolitical implications.

Causes of Japanese Imperialism

The roots of Japanese imperialism can be traced to

the mid-19 th century, when the country embarked

on a rapid modernization process (Meiji

Restoration). This period of intense social, political,

and economic transformation aimed to propel

Japan into the ranks of the world's great powers.

The Meiji restoration in 1868 was in fact an

economic revolution which was triggered off by

the entry of Western capitalism into Japan. With the Meiji Restoration, the feudal

economy was abolished, and a modern capitalist economy emerged in Japan.

Japan lacked sufficient natural resources, and sought to secure raw materials and

energysources,suchasoil,coal,andiron,tofuelitsindustrializationand economic

growth.

Japanese expansion aimed to open new markets for Japanese goods and create

spheres of influence to strengthen its economic and trade position, particularly in

East Asia.

Japanemergedasanimperialpower after 1868,moreasaproductofmodernization than

of native tradition.

Like the Western imperialist powers, Japan too, looked for colonies and jumped

into the fray of an international competition.

Achieving equality with the West was one of the primary goals of the Meiji leaders.
Nationalism and Pan-Asianism:

A strong sense of nationalism emerged in Japan during the Meiji era, fueled by a

belief in Japanese superiority and a desire to restore the country's historical

greatness.

This nationalism was intertwined with Pan-Asianism, the ideology of Asian unity

against Western imperialism.

International Rivalries:

Japan's growingpower brought it into conflict with other imperial powers,such as

Russia and Britain, leading to wars and territorial acquisitions. These rivalries

reinforced the notion of Japan's need for a strong military and overseas

possessions.

Militarism:

The Meiji government invested heavily in modernizing the military, creating a

powerful force that could support Japan's imperial ambitions. The military played

a significant role in shaping Japan's foreign policy and promoting expansionist

goals.

Strategic Interests: The Japanese military leadership sought to establish aregional

hegemonyin East Asiaandthe Pacific,leadingtotheoccupationofterritories such

as Korea, Manchuria, and parts of China to create a buffer zone and secure

strategic positions.

Domestic Politics:

Social unrest and economic challenges within

Japan fostered a belief that imperial expansion

could divert attention from domestic problems

and unite the nation around a common goal.

Iwakura Mission (1871) to US and Europe: Treaty reform to

end the foreigners' judicial and economic privileges provided

by extraterritoriality and fixed customs duties.

The Western powers insisted, however, that they could

not revise the treaties until Japanese legal institutions

were reformed along European and American lines.

Efforts to reach a compromise settlement in the 1880 s

were rejected by the press and opposition groups in

Japan.

Building of Japanese Empire

Annexation of Korea

Japan had economic and strategic interests in Korea. Korea was a major producer

of rice and also provided a good commercial market for Japanese products.

However, in Korea, Japanese interests collided with those of China and Russia.

Sino-Japanese War (1894)

▪ The Sino-Japanese War

erupted in 1894 in which

Japanese forces proved to be

superior and China was

roundly defeated. It then sued

for peace. Thus, was signed

Shimonoseki Treaty (1895)

Both sides recognized

the independence of Korea.

China ceded to Japan Formosa, Liaotung Peninsula, and Port

Arthur.

China was also forced to pay a huge war indemnity to Japan.

Racism: Yellow Peril/Fever

China granted Japan all rights enjoyed by European powers. China

made significant economic concessions, including the opening of

new treaty ports.

▪ Analysis

Japan marked its own emancipation from the unequal treaties by

imposing even harsher terms on its neighbour.

Japan's overwhelming victory upset the power balance within

China as well as on the international scene.

The defeat of China exposed her weaknesses and there

began a scramble for concessions among the big powers.

It also demonstrated that the Japanese could not maintain Asian

military victories without Western sufferance.

However,thethree-powerintervention(France,Russia,and

Germany)didn'tallow Japantoenjoythefruitsofitsvictory.

Theydidn'tendorse Japanesegainsandforcedthereturnof

the Liaotung Peninsula to China. It made Japan hostile

towards them.

Russia leased the same territory with its important naval

base, Port Arthur (Lu-shun), from China in 1898.

The victory also proved a tremendous source of prestige for Japan

and brought the government much internal support; it also

strengthened the hand of the military in national affairs.

Russo -Japanese War (1905)

▪ Increasing Russo-Korean proximity:

Reluctant to accept Japanese

leadership, Korea instead

sought Russia's help. During

Boxer Rebellion, Russia

occupied southern Manchuria,

thereby strengthening its links

with Korea.

Japan was concerned by Russian penetration into Manchuria and

Korea for it stood as a stumbling block on her road to supremacy.

▪ Anglo-Japanese Treaty (1902):

Englandtoo,disapprovedthe Russiandesignsin Asiaasitmightrun

counter to her own interest in the British Indian Empire. The

common interests of Japan and England brought about the Anglo-

Japanese Alliance (1902).

This alliance provided that Britain would help Japan in the

eventuality that France helped Russia.

Backed by Britain, Tokyo was prepared to take a firmer stand

against Russian advances in Manchuria and Korea.

▪ The Russo-Japanese War (1905):

In 1904 Japanese ships attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur

without warning. In the war that followed, Japanese arms were

everywhere successful.

▪ Treatyof Portsmouth(1905):U.S.President Theodore Rooseveltmediated

a peace settlement.

It gave Japan primacy in Korea. Russia was forced to recognize

Japan's paramount political, military, and economic interests in

Korea.

Russia granted to Japan its economic and political interests in

southern Manchuria, including the Liaotung Peninsula.

Russia also ceded to Japan the southern half of the island of

Sakhalin.

▪ Analysis:

The victory of Japan over Russia shattered the myth of Western

invincibility and paved the way for the emergence of Japan as one

of the leading powers of the world.

The victory over Russia altered the balance of power in East Asia.
Japan's rise as a world power then

brought her into a bitter rivalry with

the USA whose capitalistic interests in

the Far East were threatened.

It encouraged nationalist movements

in India and the Middle East.

The war was extremely costly in

Japanese lives and treasure. At home

Japan's failure to gain an indemnity to

pay for the heavy war costs made the

treaty unpopular.

Annexation of Korea (1910)

▪ After 1905 Russia withdrew

from Korea. After the war,

Korean liberties and

resistance were crushed.

Initially, Japan sought to

control Korea through a

Korean ruling house.

▪ Japan finally annexed Korea

and brought her into the fold

of the Japanese Empire in 1910.

So, by 1912, when the Meiji emperor died, Japan had not only achieved equality

with the West but also had become the strongest imperialist power in East Asia.

Twenty-One demands on China during World War I

During World War I, Japan fought on the Allied side but limited its activities to

seizing German possessions in China and the Pacific. Shantung fell at the feet of

Japan and was turned into her 'sphere of influence'.

China sought its return, but Japan responded with the notorious Twenty-one

Demands (1915) that tried to pressure China into widespread concessions.

Consequence

▪ Chinese succumbed to many demands and was virtually reduced to

became a protectorate of Japan. It led to permanent enmity between

Japan and China. It created anti-Japanese nature of modern Chinese

nationalism.

Worries in the West: Disarmament conference (Washington, D.C. 1921-22)

To reduce the influence of Japan, USA eventually compelled Japan to sign the

Treaty of Washington in 1921. It happened in the Washington Conference, called

by the United States to limit the naval arms race and to work out security

agreements in the Pacific area.

A network of treaties was designed to place restraints on Japanese ambitions

while guaranteeing Japanese security.

▪ Four-Power Pact (Japan, Britain, France, US) replaced the Anglo-Japanese

Alliance

▪ Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty (with Italy) that set limits for

battleshipsat aratioof fivefor Great Britain andthe United Statestothree

for Japan.

▪ An agreement on the fortification of Pacific island bases to assure Japan of

security in its home waters.

▪ Nine-Power Pact to protect China from further unilateral demands.

Japan subsequently

agreed to retire from

Shantung.

▪ In 1925 a treaty with the Soviet

Union extended recognition to

the U.S.S.R. and ended active

hostilities.

Japanese armies

withdrew from Siberia

and northern Sakhalin.

Thus, by the mid-1920 s Japan's great surge forward in Asia and the Pacific had

ended. This brought hope that a new quality of moderation and reasonableness,

based on the absence of irritating reminders of inferiority and weakness, might

characterize Japanese policy.

Invasion of China (1930 s)

In 1931, Japan invaded China and captured Manchuria.

▪ China appealed to the League

of Nations for justice. The

League of Nations marked the

Japanese as aggressors and so

Japan resigned their

membership of the League of

Nations in 1933.

In 1937, Japan invaded China again.

▪ The League of Nations advised

the member nations to impose

military sanctions on Japan.

This was, however, never

implemented.

In 1941, Japan joined WW 2

The Japaneseair-strikeson Pearl Harbour,the Americannavalbase,andonseveral

British establishments in Asia were important events of the Second World War.

In retaliationthe United Statesdroppedatomicbombson Hiroshimaand Nagasaki

in 1945. Shortly thereafter, Japan surrendered.

Japanese imperialism was thus eventually contained by the USA.

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