“An individual should not have too much freedom. A nation should have absolute”

freedom."

• Sun Yat-Sen

The Chinesecivil war,whichwasfoughtbetween the Kuomintang(KMT)regimeledby General Chiang Kai Shek and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) led by Mao Tse Tung (Mao Zedong), is known as Chinese Revolution in the modern Chinese history. This civil war ended in the victory of CCP and on 1 st Oct 1949 and China emerged as a communist nation.

Background: Rise of Communism in China

Revolution of 1912

• At the beginning of the century, China was ruled by Manchu Dynasty. However, by now, China had faced years of humiliation at the hands of outsiders. She was subjected to imperialist exploitation.

• Thus, by the early 1900 s, China was ripe for revolution.
• As a result, in 1912, there was an overthrow of the last Manchu ruler and the formation of republic. It was led by Dr. Sun Yat Sen

(Sun Yixian) who then came to power. This marked the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.

• Dr. Sen's government was guided by 3 ideals:
• Nationalism: to end the foreign control ▪
• Livelihood and Land reforms: Economic security of all citizens
• Democracy: Democracywas essential to liberate China from clutches of despotism and war lords. After Revolution (1912-1919): The KMT faced a lot of challenges from the very beginning.
• Despite being an influential revolutionary leader, Sun lacked the authority and military support to secure national unity. He deferred to Yuan Shikai, commander of the only military force capable of unifying the country.
• Yuan Shikairemainedpresident for 4 years,buthequicklybetrayedthedemocratic ideals of the revolution. His actions sparked local revolts.
• After the general died in 1916, civil war broke out. Real authority fell into the hands of provincial warlords (powerful military leaders). They ruled territories as large as their armies could conquer.
• So, despite the best of the efforts made by Dr Sen and his colleagues to create a modern China, the republic didn't work.
• Sun saw this as an opportunity to regain power, and he returned to China in 1917. He formed a government in southern China: Guangzhou
• Meanwhile, in 1917, when Bolshevik revolution became successful in Russia.
• China being a neighbouring country was influenced and fascinated. Some Chinese intellectual and scholars came under its spell. One of them was Mao.
• Sun Yat-Sen was also an early proponent of certain socialist ideals, arguing that socialism and communism were both subsets of the doctrine of Minsheng (People's Livelihood), an idea centered around the taxation of land.

May Fourth Movement (1919-21)

• China at this juncture in 1917 participated in WW 1 in the hope to liberate Shantung from Germany. However, under the Treaty of Versailles, the Allied leaders gave Japan those territories.
• This deceitful humiliation in China led to a strong anti-imperialist feeling which led to the May Fourth movement.
• Workers, shopkeepers, and professionals joined the cause.
• The movement marks the beginning of Chinese nationalism.
• Sun Yat Sen also shared the aims of the movement. ▪ He reorganized his party into the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party or KMT) to create a more unified and disciplined political force.
• Intellectual-Cultural Awakening ▪ Influential intellectuals and students rejected traditional Confucian values and advocated for a new, modern, and science-based approach to culture and society.

▪ There was a call for vernacular language, democracy, and individual rights, reflecting a broader shift toward modernity.

• Student Activism

▪ Students and young intellectuals played a central role in the May Fourth Movement. University campuses became hotbeds of activism, with students organizing protests, strikes, and intellectual forums.

• Communism ▪ Many young Chinese intellectuals and students, who participated in the movement, soon turned disillusioned with Western democracy in favor of Lenin's brand of Soviet communism.

▪ After 1919, Bolsheviks also assisted China by sending some agents, under the banner of Commintern.

▪ Now, communism began to gain serious traction in China. During 1919-20, readinggroupsfocusedonthestudyof Marxismbegantodevelopin China.

▪ Thus, was formed the Communist party in China (CCP) in 1921.

Chinese Communist Movement under Mao-Tse-Tung

“Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.”

Mao First Phase: United Front Policy (1922-27)

Initially, both parties worked together to create a modern China.

• Dr Sen (KMT)
• Likethe Communists,Sunbecamedisillusionedwith the Westerndemocracies that refused to support his struggling government.
• He hoped to unite all the revolutionary groups for common action.
• Dr. Sen also wanted to carry out the Northern Expedition to unify China under a single government.
• Sun Yat-sen announced the Three Great Policies, which emphasized nationalism, democracy, and socialism. This framework provided a basis for cooperation between the KMT and CCP, as both parties shared the goal of a unified and modernized China.
• Mao (CCP) decided to help the KMT and oppose the imperialist powers.
• He adopted a very pragmatic policy in China. Chinese Communist Party seized every opportunity to strengthen its position.
• Its policies were similar to KMT regime of Dr. Sun Yat Sen.
• There was a guidance coming from Moscow.
• Role of Lenin
• Lenin seized the opportunity to promote his United Front Policy and
• To help KMT government, in 1923, he sent military advisers and equipment in return for allowing the Chinese Communists to join the Kuomintang. Despite their cooperation, the Communists and Nationalists had fundamental ideological differencesthatwould eventuallyleadtotheirsplit.The United Front Strategydidn'tlastlong.

Reasons

• Lenin died in 1924 and Dr Sen passed away in 1925. Now, the differences flared up between the new leaders - Chiang Kai Shek (CKS, Jiang Jieshi) and Mao.
• Chiang was anti-communist.
• He had promised democracy and political rights to all Chinese. Yet his government became steadily less democratic and more corrupt.
• Most peasants believed that Chiang was doing little to improve their lives. As a result, many peasants threw their support behind the CCP.
• Despite that, the Northern Expedition (1926-28) was carried out by the KMT with CPC support which was aimed at unifying the country under one government by defeating the warlords.
• In 1927, CPC published a future strategy which alarmed KMT.
• Its final objective was declared to be the proletariat revolution and end of capitalism. However, collaboration with the nationalist party (deemed as capitalist) was considered only a tactical necessity.
• CCP tried to capture some industries and organize some workers for the revolution.
• It created cleavage between the two parties. Thus, by 1927, the period of honeymoon was over, and the members of CPC were expelled.

Coalition government was over.

Second Phase: Chinese Civil War (1927-37)

The force of the peasantry is like that of the raging winds and driving rain. It is rapidly increasing in violence. No force can stand in its way. The peasantry will tear apart all nets whichbinditandhastenalongtheroadtoliberation.Theywillburybeneaththemallforces of imperialism, militarism, corrupt officialdom, village bosses and evil gentry.

• Mao
• In 1927, the United Front was broken by KMT and then CKS declared a war against communist in China.
• He initiated violence, purges and massacres to suppress CCP.
• The Nationalists nearly wiped out the Chinese Communist Party.
• In 1928, CKS became president of the Nationalist Republic of China.
• Great Britainand the United Statesbothformallyrecognizedthenewgovernment, but the Soviet Union did not.
• After the massacre, the Communists fled cities and retreated to the countryside.
• By early 1930 s, they had created a political base in rural China.
• A Chinese Soviet Republic (CSR, also Jiangxi Soviet) (1927-34) was created and even issued a currency and ran welfare programs. Mao even re-distributed land among peasants.

▪ Mao also recruited the peasants to join his Red Army.

• KMT was alarmed with this development.
• It continued its counter-insurgency operations and kept on sending expeditions to destroy the soviet.
• In the meantime, Japan invaded China in 1931 and tried to capture Manchuria. ▪ However, for CKS, the bigger enemy still wasnot Japanbut CCPunder Mao.

Even during this critical juncture, continued his counter-insurgency operations.

• He sent a large army of 10 L soldiers against CPC in Jianxi province. These soldiers almost started slaughter of Communist party volunteers. Finally, it captured Jiangxi Soviet.
• Long March (1934-35)
• Communist Party leaders realized that they were totally surrounded by the nationalist forces and faced defeat. Now it became the matter of survival for Mao.
• In a daring move, 100,000 Communist forces fled. They began a hazardous, 6,000-mile-long journey called the Long March. They moved across the countryand reach Shaanxi Province in NW and created a new base.

▪ After finally arriving at the caves in Shaanxi, Mao declared, "If we can survive all this, we can survive everything. This is but the first stage of our Long March. The final stage leads to Peking [Beijing]!"

• Significance of Long March:
• Escape from encirclement: ▪ It allowed the Red Army to escape from encirclement by the KMT forces and to establish a new base in northwestern China.

▪ This was a significant military victory for the Communists and enabled it to continue fighting the KMT.

• Increased popular base: It also helped to increase popular support for the CRA. ▪ Red Army's willingness to endure such hardship and sacrifice won over many Chinese people to their cause.

▪ During the March, communists came into contact with more than 200 million people. They could spread the ideas among masses & won massive mass support. It was this mass support that helped CCP in winning against KMT regime.

• Party Unity: It forged a sense of unity and ideological purity within the CCP. ▪ The harsh conditions and constant threat from external forces forced the party to address internal ideological differences and solidify its commitment to communism.
• Rise of Mao Zedong: It solidified Mao Zedong's position as the leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). ▪ Mao's leadership during the Long March demonstrated his strategic brilliance, determination, and ability to inspire loyalty.

▪ Amidthe Long March,in 1935,Maobecamethemainleaderin CCPin Zunyi Conference.

• Ideological shift: Mao's emphasis on guerrilla warfare and political mobilization led to a more pragmatic and mass-oriented approach to revolution. ▪ "The guerrilla must move amongst the people as a fish swims in the sea." -

Mao

• Formation of Red Army's military doctrine: ▪ This experience shaped the military doctrine of the Red Army,emphasizing flexibility, mobility, and the ability to operate in diverse and challenging environments.

Third Phase: Japanese invasion and WW 2 (1937-45)

• In 1937, Japan embarked on a program of conquest across much of eastern China.
• Mao's Initiative:
• Appeal to Nationalists: Mao made several attempts to persuade Chiang Kai-shek to form a united front against the Japanese.
• Tactical Move:

▪ Inthefaceofthe Japaneseinvasion,the CCPretreatedtopreserveitsforces and form alliances with various local warlords and the KMT.

▪ This tactical maneuvering facilitated the establishment of a united front against the common enemy.

• CKS Reaction:
• Notwithstanding, Chiang continued to press against CPC.
• Buthiscommander,didnotsupporttheattackon the Communists.Instead,Chiang waskidnappedfortwoweeksandforcedintomakinga"Second United Front"with the Communists against Japan.
• Second United Front
• During this phase, the CCP and the KMT were temporarily in an alliance so they could fight against their common enemy, Japanese invaders.
• Once the actual war started, CKS realized very soon that this collaboration was simply a tactical move on partof Mao. Mao preserved hisresources and expanded his base.

▪ From Northwest, they mobilized peasants for guerrilla war against the Japanese in the northeast.

▪ Communists aggressively expanded their military strength through absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind enemy lines.

▪ Thanks to their efforts to promote literacy and improve food production, the Communists won the peasants' loyalty. By 1945, they controlled much of northern China.

• Ontheotherhand,duetotheinvasion from Japan,theareaunder the Kuomintang government weakened. ▪ Its power was reduced in defence.

▪ Chiang withdrew:

• Having lost mostof China's economicand industrial centers,Chiang withdrew into the hinterlands, stretched the Japanese supply lines, and bogged down Japanese soldiers in the vast Chinese interior.

▪ Scorched-earth policy:

• As part of a policy of protracted resistance, Chiang authorized the use of scorched-earth tactics, which resulted in many civilian deaths.
• Disaster Relief: ▪ Chiang/KMT were slow to provide disaster relief.

▪ At this moment the communist party rushed to fill up the vacuum and expanded its base in the region.

• In the meantime, in 1941, Pearl Harbour happened, and the USA entered the war. So, the Chinese question became the part of the bigger question of the World War.
• Corruption in Chiang's army:

▪ From 1942 to 1945, the US sent the Nationalists at least $1.5 billion in aid to fight the Japanese. Instead of Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek in Chongqing, China, in September 1945, toasting the victory over Japan.

benefiting the army,however, these supplies andmoney often ended up in the hands of a few corrupt officers.

• On 15 August, Japan surrendered after Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the war ended. Fourth Phase: Second Phase of the Civil War (1945-49)

“Revolution is not a dinner party, nor an essay, nor a painting, nor a piece of embroidery; it”

cannot be advanced softly, gradually, carefully, considerately, respectfully, politely, plainly, and modestly. A revolution is an insurrection, an act of violence by which one class overthrows another."

• Mao After the conclusion of World War II, the civil war resumed between the KMT and the CCP.
• There were 40 L soldiers from the side of KMT while 10 L from the side of CPC in the People's Army.
• At first, the Nationalists had the advantage. Their army outnumbered the Communists' army by more than three to one.
• External Support: In the war, the United States supported the KMT, and the Soviet Union supported the CCP, but both to limited extent.
• American Strategy: ▪ American government did not intervene in CCW directly.

▪ Initially USA tried to resolve the Chinese crisis through talks. Both the groups were brought to discussion table to settle their difference.

▪ When these talks failed, to end the hostilities American government provided financial support to KMT regime ($2 b aid).

• The Nationalist forces, however, did little to win popular support.
• By this time, the CCP had strengthened its base.
• With China'seconomycollapsing,thousandsof Nationalistsoldiersdesertedto the Communists.
• Mao's troops were also enthusiastic about his promise to return land to the peasants.
• War
• As Japan started to evacuate Chinese region. A race started between the two parties to capture the region and establish the government.
• During this war, there was widespread devastation in China.
• In spring 1949, China's major cities fell to the well-trained Red forces.
• The remnants of Chiang's shattered army fled south.
• Thus,despite initial gainsby the KMT, they were eventually defeated and forced to flee to offshore islands, most notably Taiwan.
• Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949.

Why did CCP emerged victorious while KMT fail?

The victoryof CCP against the KMT regime was asmuch the results of strengths of communist as the weakness of KMT regime.

Factors Success of CCP Failure of KMT Leadership Mao Zedong's efficient, charismatic and strategic leadership.

Chiang Kai-shek's perceived authoritarianism.

Soldiers Highly motivated soldiers led by inspiring leaders such as Mao and Chou En Lai.

Demoralized, not properly paid and more of mercenaries.

Social Base Immense mass support due to pro-people policies. Mobilization of peasants (land reforms, social reforms). Period of Long March was used to widen mass base.

Anti-people approach. Failure among rural peasantry; association with landlords. Lack of concern for common people.

Military Tactics Successful use of guerrilla warfare against a much bigger army of

Kmt.

Military weaknesses, corruption within ranks, and loss of critical battles.

Ideological Flexibility Adapted ideology to specific circumstances.

Struggled with internal divisions and factionalism; lacked ideological adaptability.

International Support Received support and guidance from the Soviet Union.

Inability to gain substantial international support; inefficient use of U.S. backing.

Impact of World War II Decision to suspend civil war and prioritize resistance to Japan made it popular. It emerged from the conflict in a stronger position.

Didn't care about occupation of Manchuria and thus unpopular. Its military capabilities were severely impacted; failed to capitalize on wartime contributions.

Overall, Unity and Coherence Achieved a sense of unity and ideological purity.

Internal divisions and factionalism weakened overall coherence.

Impact/Significance The Chinese Revolution has been controversial, and its legacy is still being debated. Some people argue that the revolution was a positive development that led to China's socio-

economic transformation and rise as a global power. Others argue that the revolution was a negative development that led to the suppression of human rights and economic hardship.

Regardless of one's perspective, there is no doubt that the Chinese Revolution was a major event in world history. It had a profound impact on China and the world.

• For China:
• The Chinese revolution was a "nationalist revolution" that helped to unify China.
• It resulted in the emergence of a powerful and ambitions China.
• The success of the CCP made the communist revolution relevant in Asia.
• Mao redefined Marxist ideology according to the specific Asian condition. Basis of this revolution was the peasants as proletariat class.
• Transformation of Society:
• It brought about significant socio-economic changes, including land reforms, the redistribution of wealth, and the empowerment of the rural peasantry. These transformations aimed to address long-standing social inequalities and improve the living conditions of the masses, albeit with varying degrees of success.
• The Chineserepublicpresentedanalternativemodelofdevelopmentwhichwasdifferent from the Russian model.
• While denying the Russian model which based on heavy industries, the Chinese model brought agrarian economy into the focus. According to this model, agriculture would be the mainstay of the economy and smaller industries and workshops would work as a supplement to agrarian economy.
• After the foundation of the Chinese republic in Asia there emerged a powerful nation which could give a challenge to western imperialism.
• The foundation of a communist government in China gave an alternative model of protest to colonies. So, Chinese republic accelerated the process of decolonisation of Asia.

Limitations

• It was also a violent catastrophe that led to the deaths of millions of people. It was also a betrayal of the Chinese people, as it led to the establishment of a totalitarian regime that was as repressive, if not more, than the Qing Dynasty.
• Inplaceofworldrevolution,Chinesecommunismtooktheformofradicalandaggressive nationalism and created havoc for its neighbours.
• The emergence of a strong and an aggressive China was destabilizing for entire because Chinese did not believe in the efficacy of conciliatory approach. Chinese nationalist interest was pushed aggressively by communist regime.
• Maoism which was the product of the Chinese revolution became synonymous with violence. Presently, it has created a law-and-order issue in many Asian countries.
• The Chinese communist government pursued the One China Policy. It emphasized integration of all Chinese territories under one rule. Annexation of Tibet in Oct 1950 was the example of the same.
• Intensified Cold War
• Many people in the West viewed the takeover of China as another step in a Communist campaign to conquer the world.
• The establishment of a Communist state in China shifted the balance of power in favour of the Soviet Union. The United States was now facing a major communist rival in Asia.
• The policy of indirect intervention was abandoned and hereafter, the USA started participating directly in fight against communism. (e.g. American participation in Korea and Vietnam)
• The existence of two Chinas, and the conflicting international loyalties they inspired, intensified the Cold War.

Decolonization means the liberation of colonies, and emergence of new nations. But the process of liberation did not prove smooth rather it proved a long and arduous process.

This process of decolonization commenced in 1776 with the proclamation of American independence and continued for more than 200 years till the last colonies Eritrea (1993) and Palau (1994).

However, the focus of this chapter is on the post-world war decolonization. One of the most important outcomes of the Second World War was the end of direct colonial rule in different parts of the world, and particularly in Asia. Due to the rising tide of anti-colonial movements, British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese colonial rule ended in many countries. During the 1940 s anti-colonial political ideology was spreading fast in colonies like India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Indochina. As a result of these movements most of the former colonies achieved independence by 1950. It is said that what impact had earlier Napoleonic war producedon Spanishcolonyof Latin America,sameimpactthe Second World Warlefton Asio-

African colonies of Britain, France Holland etc.

The process of decolonization was inspired and powered by several factors that were intellectual socio-cultural, political and economic.

The factors which encouraged decolonisation

• At the International level:
• The impact of the Atlantic charter. ▪ The second world war was fought in the name of preserving human freedom and protecting democracy from fascist power. So, it naturally encouraged the aspiration of colonial people.

▪ It inspired colonized people, and pressurized colonial powers.

Atlantic Charter (14 August 1945)

Contributions

• It promised the right to self-judgment to all the people living in different parts of the world. It proved a death knell to colonialism and imperialism, and it became a charter for decolonization.
• Historian Caroline Elkins: "The independence genie was out of her bottle, and it was the Atlantic Charter that had set her free."
• The Atlantic Charter was subsequently incorporated by reference in the Declaration of the United Nations (January 1, 1942).

Limitations

• Throughthe Atlanticcharter,the USAhadbeensearchingforitsownmarketdesperately through removing control by colonial powers from the international market.
• Very soon, the agenda of the cold war violated the Atlantic charter.
• In context of Asian colonies, Japanese occupation worked as a major factor.

▪ Duringthewar,mostofthe British,Dutch,and French coloniesin Asiawere occupied by Japan. When the Japanese realized that they were facing defeat, they started to encourage the nationalist movements in these colonies to destabilize their enemies. They encouraged the nationalists in Indonesia, Indochina, and India and even supplied weapons to the Indonesian nationalists.

• The role played by UNO. ▪ UNO also played an important role in success of process of decolonization ever since its established in 1945, UNO has supported right of self-

determination of people.

▪ A committee on decolonization was established by UNO in 1962. This committee handled the task of liberation of colonies and worked to ensure that every colony gets liberated.

• Cold War Rivalry: ▪ The pressure from USSR.

▪ An initiative from the side of the USA.

• NAM also played a role in the process of decolonization. It aways stood for the rights of self-determination of natives and condemned colonial rules.
• At the level of colonial power: Decline of Europe after WW 2
• All the three imperialist powers, British, French and Dutch declined after the Second World War. The European colonial powers faced massive destruction during WW.Itwaspracticallyimpossibleforthemtomaintaintheircolonialempire against the will of natives after WWII.
• The Second World War had put tremendous pressures on the exchequers of the former colonial powers. ▪ After the Second World War, they became badly involved in post-war economic reconstruction.
• They found the European market more lucrative than the colonial market.
• European powers while taking the German instance came to realise that colonisation adversely affected their domestic economy.
• At the level of colonies:
• Spread of awakening among the people of colonies played most important role in the commencement of decolonization.
• The colonial exploitation of natives also played role in the process of decolonization.
• The WW II also played an important role in spread of awakening among natives ▪ Natives encountered outside world directly. African soldiers fought along with whites and absorbed western ideas; these soldiers carried modern ideas with them to their countries when war got over.
• Emergenceofnationalismandcommencementofnationalmovementplayed most important role in the success of process of decolonization. Colonial resistance movement started in many colonies i.e. 'Quit India Movement' in India, 'Mau Mau Movement' in Kenya, 'Bloody conflict' in Vietnam and Algeria. These anti-colonial

movements compelled the already overstretched colonial powers to look for compromise.

The process and the nature of decolonization

• In the process of decolonisation, we notice two different models, Capitalist and Communist.
• Mostofthe Asianand Africancountriesgotfreedombasedonthecapitalistmodel.
• Insomecountrieslike Chinaand Vietnam,the Communist Partyledthemovement. ▪ Very soon the liberation movement in these countries became part of the cold war.
• The process of decolonization varied from one power to another power and region to region.
• For example, France wasa bit hardliner in approach, it did not allow its colonies to slip out of its hand so smoothly.
• On the other hand, Britain adopted a bit soft approach to nationalist resistance against its rule.
• The nature of decolonization depended even on the basis that the stake some colonial power had in the region concerned. If the stake was higher (e.g. larger settled population

or larger investment), then colonial power was not ready to vacate the region smoothly.

• Even the term 'decolonization' itself is a misnomer. It sounds as if the liberation was a smooth processand imperialistpowersliberatedcolonies willingly.However, the situation

was quite the opposite and the imperialist powers vacated the colonies only then it became almost impossible for them to hold the colonies furthermore.

Liberation of Asian Countries In post-world war era, India was the first country to attain independence.

• An Englisheducated middleclass leadership,which wastheproductof English education, emerged in India and led the premier nationalist organization, Indian National Congress.

It worked as an umbrella organization in national movement under Gandhi. It was in 1947 British negotiated transfer of power to India.

• It was in 1948 that Sri Lanka and Burma got independence. Liberation movement in Southeast Asia
• It took a specific turn due to two factors-firstly,the factorof Japanese occupation and secondly, activism of the communist party.
• Philippines
• It was a semi-American colony. It was the first region where USA could experiment with the policy of neo-

colonialism after snatching the region from Spain in 1898.

• Later Philippines was conquered by Japan during the Second World War.
• Thedemand fortheliberation for Philippines from semi-colonialstatus under USA hadstartedfrom 1930 sonwardsbutitwas after the exit of Japan that USA granted its independence in 1946.
• Just after the independence, there was a civil war (1946-57).

▪ The conservative government of Philippines had to face the severe challenge from leftist or communist group. It was a matter of concern for USA which continuously gave covert support to the rightist government.

Finally, leftist groups were defeated and suppressed in Philippines.

• Malaya Peninsula
• In Malaya there was three ethnic groups, Chinese, Malayas who were in majority and others including Indian immigrants. One distinctive aspect of the Malayan decolonization process was the emphasis on multiracialism to minimize ethnic tensions.
• The aftermath of World War II significantly influenced the decolonizationprocess. ▪ The war weakened European colonial powers and enhanced the spirit of nationalism among colonized peoples.

▪ The British, who had control over Malaya, were weakened economically and politically after the war, making it difficult to maintain their colonies.

• Economic Factor: ▪ The rubberandtinindustries in Malayawere significantcontributorsto the British economy.

▪ However, the changing global economic landscape and the declining importance of these commodities influenced the British decision to decolonize.

▪ Also, due to the nationalist pressure Britain decided to withdraw.

• Communist Insurgency and Malayan Emergency (1948-1960)

▪ The Malayan Communist Party (MCP) played a role in the independence movement, initially collaborating with the British against the Japanese during the war but later turning against colonial rule. As the Chinese communists became too much active, it created the apprehension among the British.

▪ So, emergency was declared in response to communist insurgency. It was a critical period in the decolonization process.It was primarilya guerrilla war between the British and the MCP, but it also spurred anti-colonial sentiments and demands for self-rule.

▪ Therefore,againstcommunists,the British,the Malaysandnon-communist Chinese all were united. Finally, communists were defeated.

• Federation of Malaya to Malaysia

▪ After negotiation with the Alliance Party, a dominant nationalist party, the British withdrew in 1957. The Federation of Malaya achieved independence on August 31, 1957. Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister.

▪ In 1963, the Federation of Malaya merged with Singapore, Sabah (North Borneo), and Sarawak to create Malayasia.

▪ However, Singapore separated from Malaysia in 1965.

• In Southeast Asia liberation movement in Indonesia more or less took the same turn.
• Aftermath of WWII ▪ In course of the Second World War Indonesia also fell a prey to Japanese occupation and after exit of Japan in mid-August Indonesia was also vacated.

▪ Then once again Holland initiated to re-occupy her old colony. As she was pre-occupied with home affairs, British government of India came to take charge of Indonesia on behalf of Holland.

• But in the meantime, a nationalist party under Dr. Sukarno, which had strengthened its position under Japanese government, opposed the move tooth and nail.

▪ Itwasatthattimeevencommunistinsurgencyresurfacedbut Dr.Sukarno's party countered it. As Dr. Sukarno was having an anti-communist posture, so he earned the sympathy of western countries.

• International support for freedom ▪ Then colonial power Holland also felt the pinch of international pressure as well.

▪ Even Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru, played a pivotal role in mobilising international diplomacy in favour of Indonesia. He organized a conference of Asian countries on the issue of liberation of Indonesia in 1949.

▪ Finally, due to intervention of UNO, Indonesia's independence could be ensured.

• The case of Indochina was quite different, and it turned to be a hot issue in international diplomacy.
• Indochina was a French colony, but it was conquered by Japan in course of the Second World War. After the exit of Japan in August 1945, French tried to regain its old position.
• In the meantime, a communist leader, Ho Chi Minh installed in North Vietnam a communist government in the name of Vietnamese Republic. On the other hand, the French established a puppet government under Bao Dai in South Vietnam.
• Very soon the issue became a burning issue of cold war which left southeast Asia disturbed for next 30 years.

Liberation movements in Africa The process of decolonization was long and arduous. In some countries, fortunately the process remained to be a bit smoother, but in others it turned out to be violent.

• Northwest Africa:
• Except Algeria, in other Northwest African countries, transfer of power was negotiated relatively peacefully.
• Here the model of colonial liberation was prepared by Ghana. ▪ There emerged a middle class which was the product of the colonial rule.
• They were western educated indigenous intellectuals. Some of them were the product of missionary schools.
• Some African intellectuals were associated even with lower government jobs under the British/French government.
• Some Africans even moved to western countries for higher education.
• Apart from that, some Black intellectuals of West Africa came in touch with the Black movement in U.S.A.

▪ Thepioneerofdecolonizationinwestern Africawastobe Ghana's Khwame Nkrumah.

▪ Decolonization in Ghana was thought to be reasonably peaceful. There were no White settlers whose racial privileges needed special protection.

• The process followed in other countries of West Africa such as Senegal, Zambia, Guinea Bissau, Sierra Leon, Mauritania etc.
• The case of Algeria seems to be exceptional where France had a greater stake in the colony. So, it took the form of a military conflict.

Decolonization of Algeria Algeria was a French colony for 132 years, from 1830 to 1962. The French conquest of Algeria was a brutal one, and it resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Algerians.

Colonial Policy

• Algeria was regarded as an integral part of France, and the French government implementedpolicies aimed at assimilating Algeriansinto Frenchculture.Thisincluded the imposition of French language, legal systems, and education.
• Large portions of Algerian land were confiscated, and European settlers, known as

“colons" were encouraged to move to Algeria.”

Post WW II Developments

• After World War II, nationalist sentiments intensified.
• The Sétif massacre (1945), where peaceful protests turned violent, marked a turning point.
• Repressive measures by Frence resulted in casualties and fueled the demand for independence.

The Algerian War of Independence (1954-62)

• It began in 1954 with attacks by the National Liberation Front (FLN) which sought to end French rule and establish an independent Algerian state.
• Itwasabloodyandprotractedconflict.Frenchengagedhugearmytocrushthedem and of the national liberation and also used brutal tactics, including torture, mass killings,

and forced displacement. The French military,aswell asparamilitarygroups, employed torture and repression.

• However,the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN)wasdeterminedtowin,andthey received support from the Soviet Union and other anti-colonial movements. It carried out guerrilla warfare and acts of terrorism.

Freedom

• As the war continued, French public opinion shifted, and there were calls for negotiations.In 1959,Charlesde Gaullereturnedtopowerandacknowledgedtheneed for a political solution.
• After seven and a half years of fighting, the French government was forced to concede defeat. Negotiations led to the signing of the Évian Accords (1962). In a plebiscite

(1962), Algerians voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence.

• East Africa:
• In Eastern Africa the process of liberation appeared to be a bit more difficult as in countries like Egypt, Sudan, and Kenya etc. It is because the British had a greater stake in these colonies.

▪ If Ghana prepared the model of liberation of colonies in West Africa, Kenya prepared its model in east Africa.

• Suez Canal crisis in 1956 put a death knell to British colonialism in Africa. Still British resisted the liberation of Kenya where Mau Mau Rebellion created a larger pressure on White settlers.
• South Africa:
• In South Africa a new type of colonization was visible.

▪ In fact, White settlers in South Africa got autonomy first from metropolitan state, then complete freedom. After that, White settlers in South Africa introduced the worst type of colonization on Black majority, Bantus. That was known as apartheid.

▪ It does not simply represent racial policy rather it represented most formidable type of racial discrimination based on complete social segregation of Black population.

• Later due to consistent movement against the system and continuous pressure from world community the system gave way to a democratic government. Indian Contribution to liberation of Africa
• Indian National Movement:Inspirationforanti-colonialismthroughexample,method and ideology:
• Tunisia, Morocco, and Gold Coast had placed the demand of liberation, but colonial power had continuously rejected their demand for freedom. However,

once India got independence in 1947, the demand for their liberation could not be avoided for a longer time and finally Tunisia and Morocco got independence in 1956 while Gold Coast emerged to be an independent nation in the name of Ghana in 1958.

• At least two African leaders Nkrumah of Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta in Kenya and Kenneth Kaundaof Zambiaclearlymentionedintheirautobiographiesthat they were largely inspired by Indian independence.
• Gandhian Satyagrah gave a new method of protest to the African National Congress in South Africa. In fact, the leader of ANC, Albert Luthuli and later Nelson Mandela fell under the spell of Gandhi.
• Indian Activism: Pan African Solidarity, Diplomatic Support and Advocacy:
• Jawaharlal Nehru, who became the first Prime Minister of independent India, was a vocal advocate for anti-colonial struggles worldwide. India actively supported the decolonization of African nations through diplomatic channels and international forums.
• Indiaplayedacrucialrolein the Asian-Africanconferences,suchasthe Bandung

Conference in 1955. These conferences provided a platform for Asian and Africannationstodiscusscommonconcernsrelatedto colonialism,imperialism, and the promotion of economic cooperation. The principles of these conferences emphasized the right to self-determination for all nations.

• India led the international boycott of South Africa in protest of its apartheid regime. This boycott included economic sanctions, sporting bans, and cultural isolation, putting significant pressure on the South African government.
• India offered financial assistance to African independence movements, providing them with the resources needed to sustain their perjuangan (struggle). This financial support was often channelled through multilateral institutions like the Organization of African Unity (OAU).
• In some instances, India provided direct military support to African liberation movements, under the aegis of UN. For example, India sent troops to support the liberation of Congo from Belgian rule in the 1961-64.

Constraints in the development of Africa

Causes

• Mismatch between geography and community
• Lack of a binding force as a nation
• Backwardness in the economy and lack of proper industrialisation due to the dearth of infrastructure.
• Lack of human resources and technology
• Division of economy in two different enclaves
• Dependence over the export of one or two items
• Fell a prey to Cold war politics.
• Even the policy of economic liberalisation proved fatal to African economies.

Impediments in the development of Latin America

• Economic exploitations carried out by colonial masters left hardly any resource with the people when these countries gained

independence, they had to commence their process of economic development from zero.

• Most of Latin American countries fell under the control of despotic rulers after their independence. These despots were no better colonial masters.
• Freedom proved meaningless to Latin American republics as they were transformed into semi-colonies of USA.
• Even after the end of colonialism the policies continued to be dictated by foreign powers.
• Due to the dominance of an alliance between landed elites and military elements, most experiments with democracy after the second world war turned out to be a failure.
• Political instability in countries also obstructed the process of economic development.
• Just like in Africa, the mismatch between the geographical and ethnic boundaries. Civil wars ensued between different states.
• Racial division
• Growing role of Church in politics
• Thelevelofeducationandawakeningwasverylowamongthepeopleasaresultof which they could not walk confidently on the path of progress.
• The socio-cultural life was dominated by traditional outlook the people remained trapped in backwardness due to superstition and other evils.
• Control of Church on education system.
• Economic dependency:
• The policy of import substitution did not produce results.
• Drug economy and drug war
• Fell prey to Cold war politics.

Did colonialism really come to an end?

Is the concept of decolonization merely a myth or a reality?

Colonialismdidnotendrather itchangeditsformandit manifesteditselfinanon-formalway.

Its manifestation can be seen as follows:

Theendofformal colonial ruledidnot eradicateof colonialideologies and institutions.Many post-colonial nations continue with colonial administration and legal system including borders.

In the economic field

• Colonization had deliberately created extractive economy to suit the metropole which continued even afterwards, perpetuating unequal power relationship. E.g. Many African

countries continue to export raw materials to the Global North, while importing finished goods, resulting in a lopsided trade relationship.

• Colonization also created structural inequality in land distribution and resource access by favouring certain castes and communities against another. The post-colonial nations

continue to struggle with political and social unrest emerging out of such disruption.

• Formation of organizations such as IMF, World Bank and GATT/WTO to maintain their economic dominance just after the decolonization.
• Colonization is persisted through neo-colonial practices like MNCs and global financial institutions, which continue to exert pressure, influence economies and thereby trample upon the sovereignty of the nations.
• Presently, to open the service sector and capital investment in third world countries in the name of economic liberalization.

In the socio-cultural field

• To characterise non-Europeans as 'Oriental' and a policy of racial discrimination against them.
• Colonization had re-shaped socio-cultural and psychologicalset-upofpeople.E.g. local languages, indigenous knowledge, cultural norms, artforms and thus identity were objectified, inferiorized and suffered the imposition of foreign culture.
• Despite some amount of cultural revival during the freedom movements, such sense of deep inferiority has not been overcome and true decolonization of mind still remains in future.
• To divide the world into the central region and the peripheral region by the western intellectuals and making attempts to prove that all the important and progressive ideas

are originated in the central region and from there they expanded into the peripheral region.

• Westernintellectualsmaintainedtheirdominanceandhegemonyoverhumanitysubjects like history, sociology, political science, anthropology, and other subjects. Their

research/analysis was inclined to prove the superiority of the West. This is probably the most dangerous form of colonialism.

• A postmodernistthinker,Michel Foucault,hasgiven the conceptof power-knowledgei.e. knowledge is superimposed by the superior authority.
• As Frantz Fanon argues in "The Wretched of the Earth", decolonization is not merely a political process but also a deeply psychological and cultural one. The struggle with the

internalized oppression and the task of rebuilding their identities continues long after the formal decolonization.

The Rise of Third World The term 'Third world' has two different connotations - political as well as economic.

Political context

• 'First World' signifies the capitalist countries of western Europe, and the 'Second World' denotes the socialist countries of eastern Europe. On the other hand, the Third world denotes the newly independent countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
• They didn't belong to the same political bloc necessarily. Some nations from the Third World aligned themselves with the American bloc, while others leaned towards the Russian bloc during the Cold War era.

Economic context

• The term Third world symbolizes the countries which are suffering from the common socioeconomic malaise i.e. low investment in social sector, higher birth rate, lower per capita income, poor health and education sectors, etc.
• The countries of the third world are not a monolithic group.
• These countries were situated across Asia, Africa, and Latin America and encountered diversity of socio-economic and geopolitical circumstances.
• Also, there was a considerable disparity in their levels of development.

▪ Notably, nations such as South Korea and Taiwan exhibited economic conditions comparable to developed countries, while certain Asian and African countries faced significantly lower economic development.

What led them to form a separate entity?

• All of them had a common memory of being exploited for decades/centuries.
• Secondly, even before the independence, both Asian and African countries started to develop a sense of fraternity.

The achievements of the Third World

• Consolidation among the Third World countries made them a powerful entity. So, even the superpowers started to take them seriously.
• From the late 1940 s, they took initiative for making some associations.
• For example, in March 1947, at the initiative of Nehru, the Asian Relations Conference was organized in
• Likewise, another conference was organized in the liberation of Indonesia.
• Later in 1955, the Bandung Conference was organised. In this conference 29 Afro- Asian countries participated. It was particularly after Bandung Conference that better consolidation among third world nations was visible.
• The third world nations organized NAM at Belgrade in 1961.
• At the international forum, they could form a common opinion on important international issues like colonialism, imperialism, racialism, etc. Later, even western powers were compelled to accept their importance in these forums.

Challenges before the third world nations

• After the liberation, most of the nations accepted the capitalist model of government, so naturally their economy became subservient to the developed economy of the western world.
• Naturally,their economicdependencyoverwestern countries made theirfreedom meaningless.
• The multilateral institutions like IMF, World Bank and GATT as well as multinational companies persistently intervened in their economy.
• During the era of the Cold War:
• Peace and stability returned to the First World. Likewise, after the initial disturbance, even Second World got stabilized. But the Third World remained to be disturbed and devastated as it became the main battleground for the superpower rivalry.
• After the Cold War:
• Particularly, after the disintegration of Soviet Russia and the decline of socialist countries the Third World countries lost their staunch supporters.
• Above all, in 1990 s, on the basis of the Washington Consensus the policy of economic liberalisation was imposed over the third world nations and on the basis their market was forcefully opened.

NAM

Meaning of the Non-Align Movement

• This issue has become a matter of controversy. Sometimes it confers with the terms like neutrality, non-commitment, isolation etc.
• On the contrary, Non-alignment implies active participation in international politics. It does not mean that there should be no relations with superpower. Rather, it means to

form an independent decision on important international issues without getting influenced by any superpower.

Causes behind NAM: (objectives)

• NAM does not believe in neutrality or passivism. It believes in playing an active role in international matters. The only intention of NAMis to remain away from bloc politics and militarism and not away from international developments.
• Newlyindependentcountries cameto realizethatto joinanymilitaryblockmeans to get their foreign policy mortgaged and in that eventuality, their hard-earned freedom would be meaningless. Newly independent nations wanted to remain away from capitalist and communist military bloc.
• Before newly independent Afro-Asian nations, economic reconstruction was the first priority.So,tojoinanyblockmeanstospendthescarceresourcesonmilitaryexpenditure at the cost of a development program.
• Inaconditionofthepolicyof Non-Alignment,thethirdworldnationswouldexpect the economic support for reconstruction program from both the blocks simultaneously.
• NAM was created so that member nations could tackle their social, economic and political challenges effectively through mutual co-operation. The nature of challenges being faced by these nations were quite similar.
• NAM is the symbol of urges and aspirations of newly independent nations.
• These nations wanted to play an active role at international level by working together on a common platform.
• NAM was created so that comparatively smaller national of world could have effective say in international actives. Individually they were not strong enough to Influence the course of world politics.
• Some countries like India and Egypt tried to prove that the policy of non-alignment is inherent in their culture itself.

Process of formation of NAM

• Various Afro-Asian countries had identical experience of colonial exploitation since decades. So, they were eager to develop some sort of consolidation among themselves.
• Predecessors:
• In March 1947, under the leadership of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, organization of Asiatic Relations Conference at Delhi. Likewise, between 1900 and 1927, at least fourpan Africanconferenceswereorganizedattheinitiativeof African-Americans.
• 1954 Colombo Speech
• Zhou Enlai and Nehru described the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence to be used as a guide for Sino-Indian relations called Panchsheel (five restraints); these

principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement. The five principles were:

▪ Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.

▪ Mutual non-aggression.

▪ Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs.

▪ Equality and mutual benefit.

▪ Peaceful co-existence.

• Then once again, such a conference convened in 1945. In Bandung Conference of 1955 the basis for NAM was prepared. In this Conference, there participated 29 Asian/African countries.
• Sukarno, U Nu, Naser, Nkrumah, Tito, Nehru, Ho Chi Minh, Chau Enlai, U Thant
• But the formaldeclaration of formation of NAM in Belgrade Conference in 1961,six years after Bandung.
• Declaration: Respect for fundamental/human rights, respect

for territorial integrity and sovereignty, recognition of equality of nations, non-interference, abstention from defence pacts, not giving land for military operations of superpowers, peaceful settlements, promotion of justice and mutual interests.

The contribution of NAM

• Right from its beginning in Belgrade, the policy of non-alignment left its imprint on international politics. The NAM has always touched on the important international issues.
• For example, after its first session, it raised the issue of a nuclear test by France, apartheidin South Africaandsimultaneouslyitdemandedthemembershipof the Chinese republic in the UNO and Security Council.
• Non-alignmentworkedasa strongpressuregroup in UNOagainsttheimperialistpowers.
• NAM was on the forefront for the liberation of colonies.
• Non-alignment also carried the persistent demand for the democratization of economic relations at the international level.

Limitations

• The western powers could not take this movement much seriously. Likewise, even the apartheid regime of South Africa could not take this movement seriously.
• Some members of NAM have regularly been linked to either superpower while putting a question mark on the term 'nonalignment'.
• NAM persistently failed to stop any major international war like the Iran-Iraq war.

Is NAM relevant today?

• Through NAM was established at a time when Cold War was going on, it was not merely a reaction to the Cold War politics. It was created with many the intentions and objectives.

On closer scrutiny, we find that NAM still has a larger relevance, but only in the context of the original objectives of NAM, which was to protect the basic interest of the third world, as at that time cold war and bloc politics worked as a major threat to the interest of the third world nations.

• NAM was established so that newly independent nations could pursue independent foreign policy. Therelevance of independentforeign policy can never be lost.
• Today, after the end of the cold war, the basic interest of the nations is still threatened. Rather, the Third World has become more vulnerable to the intervention by imperialist powers. Here NAM can work as an important forum for protecting their interest.
• The newly independent nations came together on platform of NAM, so that they wouldworktogetherfortheirsocio-economicadvancement.Therelevanceof such co-operation can never become less.
• Instead of losing its relevance, NAM has become much more significant in recent times because of many trans-national challenges like climate change,

environmentaldegradation,human&drugtraffic king,Armstraffic king&terrorism etc, which cannot be tackled individually. They need a multi-lateral approach to solve them. So, it is possible only with the co-operation of a large number of nations.Weshouldkeepinourmindtha there NAMcanworkasaneffectiveforum as it is the largest in size after UNO.

• Furthermore, on such important international issues, the third world nations are generally worried about the arm-twisting by developed nations against their own interest. Even in that situation, NAM can work as a strong bullwork against such tactics.
• Today, NAM has 120 members 17 observer states are present in NAM represents more than 55% of world population. It is the second biggest political platform after UNO,

representing 50% plus of world. Such a big organization can never be irrelevant. Instead of abandoning NAM, steps should be taken to strengthen it further. To make NAM more effective, it needs to be restructured with revised objectives and programs.

Itliterallymeans the policyof socialsegregation.Itwasthe worstformof racial discrimination in South Africa. Literally,itmeansapart-hoodorseparationoftheraces. Mostpatheticaspect of the policy of apartheid is that it was enforced in South Africa at the time when the policy of decolonization was being followed in the rest of the world.

Factors which encouraged the policy of Apartheid in South Africa

• Domestic developments:
• 1946 census: it came to light that even in urban region the population of Blacks surpassed that of the Whites. ▪ So, it created some concern in the mind of the White people.
• Fagon commission (1946): According to its recommendations, Blacks should be gradually assimilated in common public life.
• Such recommendation created larger concern among the members of Nationalist Party (formed in 1912) who were inclined to maintain the purity of white blood.
• International Developments:
• Up to the end of 1940's the process of decolonization started and the countries like India got independence. Even the non-white countries got the membership of British Commonwealth.
• It created fear among White racists of South Africa that majority of black countries in British Commonwealth would create pressure over South African government to give acceptance to the rights of the Blacks.
• In 1948, Nationalist Party won election and it formed the government under DF Malan. As a counter measure the Nationalist party introduced a rigid system of racial discrimination.

Implementation of Apartheid Policy Thus, to ensure their political control, the White European minority developed the policy of apartheid. An informal practice for many years, apartheid became law in 1948.

• The blacks were not allowed to go on strike and form trade unions.
• The political representation of Blacks was taken away. It denied the Black majority South African citizenship, and a formal voice in government.
• Mixed Marriage Act (1949): Whites were prohibited to marry Blacks.
• Population registration Act (1950): White and black population to be settled in different regions.
• Pass System:Blackscouldcometothewhiteregiontoworkasalabouronlyafterattaining a pass.
• The blacks could not use the common public transport and they can't even use the common roads & parks.
• Separate areas were ear marked for the residence of blacks. These areas were known as Bantustans.

Impact of Apartheid

• Theprosperous Whiteminoritydefendeditsprivilegesbyviewing Blacksassocialinferiors.
• It deprived the blacks of their economic social and political rights.
• Blacks held low-paying jobs; on average, they earned only one-fourth what whites did.
• The properties of blacks were taken away and they were pushed into separate areas ear marked for them.
• The Bantustans were extremely crowded life in these territories of blocks was inhuman.
• All the homelands together constituted only 14% of South Africa's land, while Blacks made up close to 80% of the country's population. The resulting starvation and suffering were intense and widespread.
• The blacks were treated as 2 nd class citizens. The government accepted no responsibility of welfare and progress of blacks.
• The Blackssufferedextremeexploitationduringapartheidbecausenolegalprotection was available to them.

Protest against the policy of Apartheid

• Domestic Resistance:
• In 1912, African National Congress (ANC) was formed under Albert Luthuli. ▪ Anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa commenced in 1952. The African National Congress (ANC) of Luthuli and Mandela was at the forefront.
• Initially, Luthuli started to break apartheid laws peacefully. ▪ In 1952, the ANC asked blacks to stop working for whites and strikes were organized all over south Africa.

▪ In 1955, all Asian and African blacks' organizations came together against the policy of apartheid. A freedom charter (1955) was issued by them in which racial equality was demanded.

▪ The leaders of South African church also raised their voice against the policy of apartheid.

▪ In 1957, bus boycott was organized when separate buses were introduced for blacks.

• South African government reacted sharply, and it cracked down the movement in the name of suppression of communism.

▪ In 1960, a massive agitation was organized at Sharpeville. These agitators were shot upon, and hundreds were killed.

▪ Nelson Mandela was given life imprisonment (1962).

▪ ANCleader Albert Luthuliwasfounddeadinamysteriouscondition.(1962)

• The Anti-Apartheid agitations gained intensity during 1970 s because the conditions in Bantustans were extremely horrible.
• International Pressure:
• The Sharpeville incident triggered anti-apartheid agitations all over the world. Sharpeville Massacre, Transvaal Province, South Africa, March 21, 1960
• In 1960, British PM Harold Macmillan visited Cape Town & asked South African government to abandon apartheid.
• In 1961, Commonwealth condemned the policy of apartheid, as a result of which South Africa left commonwealth.
• In 1962 UNO imposed sanctions on South Africa due to policy of apartheid.
• In 1975, Mozambique and Angola got independence. The emergence of these blacknationsinspired south Africa tofightagainstapartheid with greater strength. ▪ Aftertheliberationof Africancountries,African Leaguealsostartedprotest against apartheid.
• In 1970 s, USA had started treating its blacks better as a result of which pressure led on South Africa
• In 1986, Commonwealth and USA imposed sanctions against South Africa. ▪ At the initiative of Indian PM Rajiv Gandhi, British Commonwealth was compelledtobringaneconomicembargo againstthe governmentof South Africa.

Thepressureofallthesedevelopmentsforcedsouth Africagovernmenttoabandonapartheid gradually.

Abandonment of Apartheid: Phase 1 Under the pressure of world public opinion, for the first time, in the end of 1970's and the early 80 s, the government of Botha took some initiatives in relaxing the system.

• The 'pass system' for black was repealed.
• The 'mixed marriage act' was abolished.
• Blacks were allowed to form trade unions and go on strike.
• Bantus (native blacks) were given the right to fight elections and cast their votes in the elections of municipal corporations. (but not in national elections)

Abandonment of Apartheid: Phase 2 (1990-94)

These developments did not satisfy the blacks (Bantus) in South Africa, and they continued the protest. In the meantime, the economy of South Africa fell to its lowest ebb due to economic embargo.

It forced the government of F.W.D. Clark (elected in 1989) to take initiative and he released Nelson Mandela from jail in 1990. National Party government started to negotiate with the recently legalized African National Congress (ANC).

(In the same year, the last colony in Africa, Namibia was liberated by South Africa.)

De Klerk repealed Population Registration Act and Land Acts, whichweremajor pillarsofthe Apartheid regime. In return, the National Peace Accord was signed between all parties to ensurepeacefulnegotiations.Itwasnoteasybecauseseveralviolentinstanceslike Boipatong massacre (1992),Bishomassacre (1993),assassinationofcharismaticleader Chris Hani(1993)

took place which could have derailed the peaceful transition.

However, Nelson Mandela adopted a conciliatory approach towards South African government and in order to dispel the fear of Whites he gave two promises. First the white

oppressors would not be punished and second the industries (mostly owned by white) would not be nationalized.

Thenegotiations(CODESA)weresuccessfullyconcludedandleadingtothesuccessfuldrafting of the new Interim Constitution (1993) which provided for racial equality. It paved the way for the first democratic elections. In 1994, elections were held in South Africa. Black majority was established under President Nelson Mandela and W.D. Clark as Vice President.

Abandonment of Apartheid: Phase 3 (1994-1999)

• The 1994 electionswereawatershedmomentin South Africanhistory.
• They marked the end of white minority rule and the ushered in the new era of democracy and equality.
• The ANC won the elections, and Nelson Mandela became the president.
• However, since democracy was new to South Africa, the new government needed to build democratic institutions and a cultureoftolerance,toavoidtherevengecycle. Inhisinaugural address,Mandelapromisedtobuild"arainbownationatpeace with itself and the world."
• Fighting the legacy of apartheid:
• Apartheid had left racial division deeply entrenched. The transition needed to ensure peaceful reconciliation and foster sense of unity.
• Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), under chairmanship of Desmund Tutu, was established (1994) to investigate human rights abuses and published its reports. It also held public hearings in which victims and perpetrators testified about their experiences.
• Socio-economic inequalities:
• Thenewgovernmentneededtoensurelandredistribution,ensurepropertyrights and promote agricultural productivity, all at the same time.
• Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) implemented several policies to address the economic and social inequalities.

Under the able and compassionate leadership of Nelson Mandela, the government made significant progress. Finally, it framed a new constitution in 1998 giving rights of all South Africans. First general elections were held in 1999 under the new constitution.

Thus, the peaceful transition from Apartheid regime to democracy was a remarkable achievement. However, although the Constitution of post-apartheid South Africa has banned racial discrimination, economic capital remains concentrated in White hands. Empowering the Black majority represents a continuing challenge for the new society.

Albert Luthuli Desmund Tutu Nelson Mandela