Revolution and Counter-Revolution

UPSC CSE PYQs Causes and Nature

• Overall
• Analyze the causes of the Russian Revolutions of 1917. Why was the second Revolution Significant in more than one way? [1985, 60 Marks]
• Examine the causes of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and indicate its significance in world history. [2003, 60 Marks]
• "The Russian Revolution (1917) was an economic explosion hastened by the stupidities of the autocratic Government". Comment. [2005, 20 Marks]
• Account for the overthrow of the Tsarist regime in Russia. [2009, 30 Marks]
• Nature
• The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a single revolution which developed two phases. Elucidate. [1992, 60 Marks]
• Lenin
• Write a critical note on Lenin's role in the Russian Revolution of 1917. [1981, 20 Marks]
• "The bold knight, Lenin, having rescued the fair maiden of the Revolution from theevilsorcerer,Kerensky,everyone livedhappilyhere after." Comment.[1983, 20 Marks]
• In Russia, Lenin was"the father of socialism,organizer of the revolution and the founder of the new Russian society." Examine the statement. [1998, 60 Marks]
• How did Lenin achieve an abrupt transition from a Monarchical autocratic to a Socialist State? [2016, 20 Marks] Success and Significance
• Overall
• What were the causes for the success of Bolshevik Revolution of 1917? Discuss its significance in the history of the world. [1980, 60 Marks]
• Examinethestatement that"thedangerof'Bolshevism'dominatednotonly the history of the years immediately following the Russian Revolution of 1917 but the entire history of the world since that date". [2017, 20 Marks]
• Comparative
• "The impact of the French Revolution (1789) was initially confined the Europe, but, that of the Russia Revolution (1917) was global." - Critically review. [2012, 30 Marks]
• "If the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (that resulted in the creation of the

Unionof Soviet Socialist Republicsor Soviet Union)inauguratedaninternational competition for the hearts and minds of people all over the globe, the Chinese revolution raised the stakes of that struggle." Critically examine. [2013 10 Marks]

• Stalin
• "Stalinist Russia was a despotic regime." Critically examine this view. [1999, 60 Marks]
• How did Stalin build on Lenin's legacy of Bolshevik Revolution and introduce new elements of totalitarianism to transform USSR as a superpower? [2020, 20 Marks]

“The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessings; the inherent virtue of”

socialism is the equal sharing of miseries."

Winston Churchill

• This revolution influenced the course of history so deeply that some scholars believed it to be the most important event in the 20 th century.
• Russian Revolution was unique.
• Inspired by long years of discontent and leadership that emerged in the course of the revolution, almost all the earlier revolutions occurred suddenly and spontaneously.
• But the Bolshevik revolution in Russia was organized/engineered through well- definedplanningandprogram.So,it wasknown asa 'textbookrevolution'aswell, it was designed and orchestrated.
• Russian revolution tried to answer some of those questions that had remained unanswered during the French revolution, i.e. the relationship between the bourgeois class and the proletariat class.
• The Russian revolution of 1917 was a complementary and supplementary to French revolution of 1789. The process of revolutionary transformations commenced by the French revolution was carried to its culmination by Russian revolution of 1917.
• It is always a matter of controversy whether this revolution was an amalgamation of two revolutions, or it was the two stages of a single revolution.
• The Russian Julian calendar was 13 days behind the international Gregorian calendar that is why these revolutions are known as Feb/March or Oct/Nov Revolutions.
• The significance of the Russian revolution lay in the second stage. If it would have stopped at the first stage, hardly it could go beyond the French revolution.
• The March revolution was better than 1905 but not more than FR 1789.
• Only because of Oct/Nov, it surpassed all and became important in 20 th c history.

Causes and March Revolution It was response to the politico-administrative and socio-economic environment prevailing in Russia. The suffering of common masses under the prevailing czarist regime came out in form of revolutionary outburst in 1917.

• Political: Absolutist nature of Tsarist regime
• It was based on the idea of divine monarchy.
• It was despotic, aristocratic, and feudal in outlook.
• It was inefficient, corrupt and anti-people.
• Economic: Even the industrialization in Russia was unique in character.
• The Russian government did not take much interest in economic advancement of nation. ▪ Few modern industries had emerged in Russia under British, French and German ownership but the level of industrialization was very low, and condition of factory workers was pathetic.
• Russia was not properly industrialized. ▪ In the words of some critics, Industries in Russia was an island in the vast sea. Most of the industries were concentrated in a particular region.

▪ So, there was a concentration of workers in a specific region. This phenomenon led to growing proletarianization among Russian workers.

• Politicians such as Sergei Witte had succeeded in partially industrializing Russia but failed to reform and modernize Russia socially.
• Social:
• A Russian monarch Czar Alexander II had abolished the serfdom system, but the condition of peasants did not improve as there was no redistribution of land.
• Reaction set in among the different ethnic groups in Russia against the policy of Russification adopted by Russian Emperor Czar Nicholas II.
• Intellectual: Before the revolution, there occurred intellectual revolutions as well.
• For example, scholars like Leo Tolstoy, Ivan Turgenev and Dostoyevsky etc. encouraged newer ideas in Russia.
• These were not communists, but they prepared the basis for discontent. They were opposed to the absolutist nature of the government and also unequal socio- economic condition of the time - both factors.
• Some events:
• After the defeat of Russia at the hands of Japan in 1905 a revolution had broken out in Russia. The Tsar promised reforms to cool down temper people, but these promises were not kept. The revolution of 1905 became a dress rehearsal of the revolution of 1917.
• After the Russian Revolution of 1905, Peter Stolypin initiated far-reaching land reforms to improve peasantry and bring political stability. ▪ Industrious peasants could leave communes and acquire private land.

▪ Outcome: moderate success.

• By 1911, more than 2 million peasants were allotted land on easy term and more than 3.5 million were settled in Siberia. However, this number was less than 20% of all the peasants.
• This process of reforms got derailed when Peter Stolypin was murdered in 1911. His death took away the ablest supporter of czarist regime.
• Overall, it did not transform the peasantry into the bulwark of support that the autocracy needed.
• Several revolutionary parties had emerged in Russia in opening decades of 20 th century. These revolutionaries were spreading socialist ideas among workers their activities had further intensified conditions in Russia.
• The conspiracy promoted by Tsarina and her spiritual teacher Rasputin gave a further blow to the prestige of the royal house. It was further tarnished.
• The First World War proved a major game-changer. It prepared the way for the revolution in following manner: ▪ There was already a conflict between the Tsar (executive) and Duma (legislature) and World War widened the gulf further.

▪ Tsar was away on battle front because of which the officers misused their power for personal benefit.

▪ It gave a big boost to inflation and scarcity of goods which was the immediate factor behind the Revolution.

• Without planning, moving to the war proved burdensome.
• Error in judgement of mintingnew moneyaggravated the inflation.
• Black marketing and hoarding became rampant. Even the food items moved beyond the reach of common masses.

▪ As the Russian government followed the "Scorched Earth Policy" against the enemy, so, it created discontentment among Russian peoples as well.

• March Revolution
• On 8 th March 1917, a group of hungry women attacked shops selling bread in Petrograd. The police opened fire resulting in the death of 40 people, this incident triggered revolutionary uprising all over Russia.
• Since workers were much aggrieved, at least 4 lakh workers came on the roads of Petrograd demanding bread.
• The government passed an order to soldiers to open fire on the mob to disperse it, but the soldiers refused to follow the command. So, the government was helpless.
• On 15 th March the government of Czar Nicholas II resigned. Thus occurred the March Revolution.

October Revolution The downfall of Tsarist regime was followed by establishment of provisional government. It was reorganized twice over its 8-month existence, each time as a coalition of several political parties.

• Mar to July: The Liberal Bourgeoisie government under George Lvov.
• July to Oct: Liberal/moderate Socialist Government under Kerensky.

So, the provisional government could not function for long and it was swept from power in a bloodlesscoupby the Bolsheviksinthesecondphaseof the Russian Revolution.The Bolshevik revolution was the outcome of number of serious mistakes committed by Kerensky's government which intensified the discontent prevailing among the masses.

• One major challenge before the government was regarding the role of Russia in WWI.
• Russians were in favour of signing a separate peace with Germany to come out of war.
• However, the Kerensky government decided to continue with war. A major offensive (June Offensive) was launched by Russia in June 1917, but it ended in miserable failure leading to heavy casualties.
• Apart from political freedom, Russian people aspired for socioeconomic freedom as well.
• The factory workers continued to suffer, and the peasant continued to face exploitation at the hands of feudal lords.
• The land question was important. Peasants had already captured some land and its fate was hanging in balance. The new government remained indecisive about it.
• Kerensky also lost the confidence of the left wing by refusing to implement their radical social and economic programs and by apparently planning to assume dictatorial powers.
• The Russian government got sandwiched between the Duma and Petrograd Soviet as both had contrary objectives.
• Soviet vs Duma ▪ Soviet: Workers' council, grassroot organization of workers and soldiers. It was radical in approach.

▪ The Duma was organized since 1905 as representative. It was bit soft-liner and was packed with either aristocracy or middle class.

• Kerensky's government had to share power with Petrograd soviet because of which it could not implement its decisions effectively. ▪ Kerensky was only person to hold positions in both governing bodies, he assumed the role of liaison between them.
• The Kerenskygovernmenttooktheunpopulardecisiontopostponetheelections. It was contended that elections were not possible at a time when Russian forces were busy in war.
• Returnof Leninfromexilein April 1917 increasedthetroubles for Kerensky'sgovernment.

Lenin and the Road to Revolution

• April
• Lenin came back to Russia in April 1917 from Germany where he had been deported by Tsar Nicholes II due to his revolutionary acts earlier. ▪ Germans arranged for his secret illegal into Russia. Berlin hoped that the return of anti-war Socialists to Russia would undermine the Russian war effort.
• In the April Theses, Lenin argued that the February Revolution had been a bourgeois revolution, but that it had not gone far enough. He argued that the working class needed to make a second socialist revolution to complete the democratic revolution and to establish socialism in Russia.
• He raised the battle cry, "All power to the Soviets!" ▪ Although at that time, the Bolsheviks constituted a minority within the soviets. The Menshevik-SR were in majority, but they were unwilling to exercise such power.

▪ The Bolsheviks, Lenin exhorted,must persuade the workers,peasants,and soldiers, to retrieve state power for the soviets.

• After several weeks of persuasion, Lenin won the Bolshevik Party Central Committee to his view. Finally in the Party endorsed his program.

▪ Withhold support from the Provisional Government ▪ Win a majority in the soviets in favour of soviet power.

▪ A soviet government, once established, should begin immediate negotiations for a general peace on all fronts.

• Establishing majority in Soviets: ▪ The Bolsheviks were a minority in the soviets.

▪ Kerensky claimed thatafreelyelected constituent assembly would decide Russia's political future--but that must await the return of order.

▪ But increasing war-weariness, breakdown of the economy and frustration of workers, peasants, and soldiers, led to the growing disillusionment with the Provisional government of Kerensky. Lenin capitalized on this. He demanded immediate peace, land, and bread. Lenin's slogan Bread, Peace and Land galvanized the support for the Bolsheviks.

▪ With this, the Bolsheviks won increasing support and by September, they voted for a Bolshevik majority in the Petrograd Soviet and in the soviets of the major cities and towns throughout the country.

• July:
• Workers and soldiersin Petrograd stage a seriesof armed demonstrations known as the July Days. The demonstrations are suppressed by the Provisional Government, and many Bolsheviks are arrested, including Lenin.
• Lenin went underground in July after he had been accused as a "German agent" by Kerensky's government.
• August:
• General Lavr Kornilov, commander of the Petrograd Military District, attempts to overthrowthe Provisional Government.Thecoup wasfoiledbythe Bolsheviksand other revolutionary groups.
• October: Communist Seize the Power.
• Now Lenin decided that the time was ripe to seize power. The party immediately began preparations for an armed uprising to transfer state power to the soviets, now headed by a Bolshevik majority.
• The Bolsheviks launched a successful coup against the Provisional Government. They stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd and overthrew the Provisional Government, establishing the world's first communist state.

The contributions of Lenin in the Bolshevik revolution (Marxism vs Leninism)

“We do not consider the theory of Marx to be a complete, immutable whole. We think, on”

the contrary, that this theory has only laid the cornerstone of the science, a science which socialists must further develop in all directions if they do not want to let themselves be overtaken by life. We think that, for the Russian socialists, an independent elaboration of the theory is particularly necessary."

Lenin Marxwas just a theoristwhereas Lenin wasa political worker.Thiswasthereason that Lenin, at times, deviated from the course of Marxism to adjust the revolution to the prevailing situation. Also, this was one of the main reasons for the success of the Bolshevik Revolution.

• Ideological contribution: Lenin redefined Marxism according to the specific condition of Russia. He justified why the revolution should first take place in Russia. He also created a clear ideological framework for revolution.
• Propaganda:
• Leninwasadeptatutilizingpropagandatomobilizethemassesandgarnersupport for the Bolshevik cause.
• Through the use of newspapers, pamphlets, and public speeches, he effectively communicated the Bolshevik message. His slogans formulated and popularized Bolshevik programs.
• Strategist
• Lenin was too conscious about the timing. He was also ready to follow opportunistic policy and sometimes he cooperated even with his rival party if the situation demanded.

▪ For example, on one occasion he cooperated with the government of Kerensky, also.

▪ Lenin presented pragmatic tactics for the revolution in Russia. He endorsed the temporary United Front strategy in his famous pamphlet

“Two Tactics of Social-Democrats". (1905)”

• He was ready even to adopt any sort of destructive policy to outwit his rival. ▪ For example, on one occasion he encouraged the minorities in Russia against the government of Kerensky, in spite of the fact that this minority group would create a problem even for Lenin in future.
• Organizer: Vanguard Party and Professional Revolutionaries
• With his pamphlet Chto delat? (1902; What Is to Be Done?), Lenin specified the theoretical principles of the communist party organization.

▪ The working class cannot achieve socialism on its own. It needs the leadership of a professional revolutionary party.

▪ He advocated for the recruitment of educated and politically conscious individuals into the party to provide leadership to the working class.

▪ Lenin also argued that the revolutionary party must be organized in a centralized and disciplined manner. He developed the party along Democratic Centralism.

• Thus, unlike what Marx had said, during the Russian revolution, instead of the proletarian class trained and selected members of the Bolshevik party captured the power.
• Formation of Bolshevik Party ▪ Lenin took part in the second Congress of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers'Party,whichwasheldin Brusselsand London(1903)andinduced the majority of the Congress members to adopt his views.

▪ Two factions formed at the Congress:

• Bolshevik (majoritarian) with Lenin as the leader. It wanted a restricted party of militants and advocated the dictatorship of the proletariat.
• Menshevik (minotitarian) with L. Martov at the head. It wanted a wide-open proletarian party, collaboration with the liberals, and a democratic constitution for Russia.

▪ As one Menshevik opponent described Lenin: "There is no other man who is absorbed by the revolution twenty-four hours a day, who has no other thoughts but the thought of revolution, and who even when he sleeps, dreams of nothing but revolution." Placing revolution above party unity, Lenin would accept no unity compromise if he thought it might delay, not accelerate, revolution.

• With the selected band of disciplined volunteers, he captured the power in Russia in Oct 1917.
• Aftercapturing power,Leninmovedforwardaccordingtotheprevailingsituationand was guided byhisexperienceduringthiscourse.Marxhadnotleft anyblueprint for thisstage.
• Lenin made compromises to the certain principle of Marxism to meet his objectives.
• Lenin established the dominance of a party in Soviet Russia, which was converted into the dominance of a single man under Stalin.
• Lenin carried a series of experiments and due to the experiments, Russian people had to suffer.

Steps taken by Lenin to consolidate the revolution after seizing power Marx talked about the mode of production, dictatorship of proletariat - but he was less focused on details of communist government. The detailsof the dictatorship of proletariat were not worked out. So, Lenin had to go for trial and error.

• Withdrawal from the WWI:
• The priority of Lenin was to consolidate the revolution in Russia, so he decided to end the war with Germany. Lenin considered Imperialism as the highest form of capitalism. So, he decided to opt out of the war by signing a separate treaty with Germany.
• Lenin signed the 'Treaty of Brest-Litovsk' in March 1918 with Germany. He submitted to Germany 1/4 th of its European Russia and 1/3 rd of European Russians as Germany put harsh terms.

▪ Signing peace with Germany invited wrath of allied powers, who invaded Russia (USA, France, Britain, Japan - all four). But Lenin didn't succumb, he rose up to the occasion andwiththesupportof the Red Armyunder Trotsky,he successfullycombatted invading army.

• The policy of terror and concessions:
• Terror ▪ Lenin organized secret police (Cheka) and unleashed coercive machinery against his rivals (enemy of revolution)
• Concessions ▪ He permitted the peasants, who had already seized land from the landlords at the time of March revolution, to retain the land, in spite of the fact that it run counter to Marxist ideals.

▪ Marxismdidn't recognize racial or cultural division, but Lenin accepted the distinct identity of minority groups in USSR. In the new constitution of USSR special position of minority groups was accepted under Russian federation.

• Economic Policy
• After coming to power, Lenin initially adopted a very tough approach towards economic policy. This system was known as "War Communism" (1918-21). This was the coercive system established to take care of a crisis situation during the Civil war.

▪ Features:

• Forced requisition of surplus grain and other food products from the peasantry
• Nationalization of industry throughout Soviet Russia In a book written in 1913, Vasily Rozanov imagined the coming of Bolshevik revolution.

With a clang, a creak and a scream, the iron curtain drops on Russian history.

“The performance is over”

The people get up from their seats.

“Time to put on your coats”

and go home."

They look around.

But the fur coats and the houses have all vanished.

• Private enterprises were declared illegal.
• State control over foreign trade
• Workers were brought under strict discipline, strikes were prohibited. Obligatory Labour duty was imposed over man working classes.
• Military style control was imposed over railways. ▪ Effects
• This was an extreme form of communism in which no private property was allowed in any form; this policy was adopted so that the challenge of civil war could be faced successfully.
• However, these measures negatively affected both agricultural and industrial production.
• With no incentives to grow surplus grain (since it would just be confiscated), the peasants' production plummeted. There was a threat of starvation in the cities.
• A hastily created large, untrained bureaucracy to supervise the state-owned economy destroyed labour productivity and industrial output.
• Uncontrolled inflation rendered paper currency worthless, and so the government had to resort to the barter system. ▪ By early 1921 public discontent became widespread, resulting in numerous strikes and protests
• New Economic Policy (NEP, 1921-28). ▪ With the end of Russian civil war, the extreme communism was no longer required. it was a temporary retreat from the previous policy of extreme centralization and doctrinaire socialism.

▪ Features

• It tried to bring back incentive structure by operationalizing open markets and private property. It was based on the idea of a mixed economy.
• The peasantry was allowed to own and cultivate their own land, sell the grains in the open market while paying taxes to the state.
• Partial privatization: Nearly 90% of Russian economy was placed underprivate capital (most agriculture, retailtrade, and small-scale light industry)
• The state retained control of heavy industry, transport, banking, and foreign trade.
• The state control over capital flow was reduced so that foreign capital could be encouraged to invest in Russia. Foreign capitalists

were allowed to run industries in Russia on the condition that their products would only be sold to government.

• Labour reforms were introduced in which salary of workers was linked to productivity.
• Government enterprises were allowed to hire engineering and other specialists from market to improve efficiency.
• Money was reintroduced into the economy in 1922

▪ Effects:

• It reintroduced a measure of stability to the economy and allowed the Soviet people to recover from years of war, civil war, and governmental mismanagement.
• Thesmallbusinessmen andmanagerswhoflourishedin this period became known as NEP men.
• NEPwasbasedonasocialistmodel.Itinfusednewenergyin Russia economy because of which extremely rapid economic progress was witnessed.
• It was viewed by the Soviet government as merely a temporary/expedient measure to allow the economy to recover while the Communists solidified their hold on power.
• The success of Russian NEP inspired many other countries. ▪ End of NEP:
• Still, the grain shortages continued.
• In 1928-29 Stalinforciblyeliminatedcollectivizedagriculture under the state's control, thus ensuring the procurement of adequate food supplies.
• This abrupt policy change marked the end of the NEP. It was followed by the reimposition of state control over all industry and commerce in the country by 1931.

The advent of Stalin Lenin'schosensuccessor was Trotskybutanambitiousleader,Stalin, sidelinedhimandseized the power. In 1924 Lenin passed away and a war of successions started. Lenin eliminated his rivals and captured power. Some rivals were killed, some put in mental asylum and electrocuted (tortured to death).

Changes by Stalin

• Change in Ideology: World Revolution vs. Socialism in a single country.
• Marx had prophesied that the third phase of revolution would be the world revolution. With this objective, Lenin even formed Communist International.
• But Stalin changed this ideal. He emphasized that due to this, the capitalist western countries have turned hostile and anti-Russia.. So, first we need to consolidate revolution in Russia. For the time being, the ideal of world revolution was suspended.
• Changes in Economy: State control
• He emphasized rapid industrialization and with this purpose, he introduced economic planning in 1928.
• A strongagriculturalbase wasrequiredfor industrialization.Thus, Stalinabolished private property in land and enforced collectivisation of agriculture (co-operative farming). The Russian economy was completely transformed under Stalin.
• Central Planning: First time experimented.
• Visionary:Allthisgreatdevelopmenthappenedwhenthewestwasgrueling under Great Depression. Soon,Russia became a super-power.And it wasdue tothis that Stalin could withstand future invasion from Nazi Germany.
• The dictatorship of the government
• During his reign, dictatorship of a party was transformed into the dictatorship of a single man.
• All dissents were silenced with iron hand. Because of which, Stalin is remembered in history as one of the worst despots. In extermination of his enemies, and in causing cruel suppression, he competed with Adolf Hitler.

Impact and Significance The Bolshevik revolution of Nov 1917 in Russia was a development of world-wide development. The echoes of its impact were heard far and wide.

• Positive impact
• The Bolshevikrevolutionresulted in the emergence ofthefirst communiststate in the world. It transformed communism from an idea to reality. For the first time, Marxist ideology was given a concrete shape and Karl Marx could be saved from being called Utopian.
• The USSR could develop an alternative model of economic development, Economic planning was introduced in the world for the first time by the USSR.

▪ It ran counter to the market forces.

▪ It became much more attractive to the Third World countries, particularly after its manifested success at the time of Great Depression 1929-30.

• Its success inspired the workers and peasants throughout the world. Leftist ideas gainedpopularityevery where.Socialistandcommunistpartiesemergedin Europe as well as in other countries.
• The Bolshevik revolution inspired similar communist revolutions in many parts of world. The Chinese communist revolution and revolution in Cuba can be cited as examples.
• The USSR contributed to the process of decolonization as well.
• Negative impact
• Bolshevik revolution was responsible for civil in Russia a long-drawn-out civil war was fought in Russia between 1918-21.
• The Russian revolutionresulted inseriousideological differences intheworld. The capitalist world felt a formidable challenge.

▪ The success of communism in Russia presented an alternative to capitalist model of political, socialand economiclife.As a result of which, an intense conflict commenced in the world to capture the heart and mind of people.

▪ Aftertheeraofprotestantmovement,Europewasideologicallydivided for the first time.

▪ Emergence of communist Russia terrified the capitalist world the western democracies were forced to pursue the policy of appeasement with Germany & Italy to counter spread of communism.

▪ This ideological division was very soon also visible in world context as well, leading to the phenomenon of cold war.

“The modern conservative isengaged in one of man's oldest exercises in moral philosophy;”

that is, the search for a superior moral justification for selfishness."

John Kenneth Galbraith Economicdepressionreferstoscenarioofsustainedrecession.Inonesense,thephenomenon of recessionanddepression isinherentinthecapitalisteconomyitself.In itsover-enthusiasm for profit, the capitalist class destroys its own market.

The American economy was struck by Great Depression in Oct 1929. It was triggered by the collapse of the Wall Street on 29 th Oct 1929 because of which American companies lost their market values and banking institutions that had given loan to these companies became bankrupt.Thespirallingeffectwasfacedby every Americancitizenespeciallytheservice class.

Millions of people lost their jobs. The rate of unemployment crosses 25% & in some state it was a high as 33% The collapse of American economy affected the health of every other capitalist economy in the world Europe was also severely affected. The process of economic revival taking place in Europe by mid-20 s got reversed.

Causes It was primarily triggered by bursting out of the bubble of extreme optimism in USA.

• There was an imbalance of trade between western imperialist countries and the colonies.
• There was a trade imbalance between Europe and the USA as well.
• WWI benefitted American economy greatly. At a time when European industries were bombed, the American industries were growing rapidly. Europe was no longer a competitor of USA and the WWI had changed the direction of international trade.
• The American Financial institutions extended huge amount of loans to American industries for capacity expansion. Most of these loans were without any collateral depositsbecausethebankswereexpectingtomakemoneybybecomingapartner in growth.
• The American manufactures extended their capacity immensely by 1919 but by 1928-39 it had started becoming visible that market had saturated. The high productionof Americanindustrieswasnotfindingmarketamajorpartwasending up in godowns.
• In the meantime, some American capitalists started to take interest in speculation, and they invested a massive amount in the share market.
• When American companies started declaring their results a fear started gripping stock market that the companies will make loss, this fear triggered the stock market crash.
• In 1929 (24 th October Thursday), the share market crashed and could not rise again. It led to great depression.
• After WWI, European economy was more or less functioning on American capital. So, depression in the US also dislocated the European economy.

Impact

• Economic Impact:
• Global GDP declined by an 25% and global trade fell by 60%. It led to massive unemployment, and poverty.
• There was a rise in protectionism which reduced trade further.
• The failure of thousands of banks led to a loss of confidence in the banking system. At that time, around

10,000 banks were closed in a few years.

• The gold standard and the international monetary system also collapsed.
• Social Impact:
• The average living standards of people declined. There werelinesof unemployedpeopleinfrontofbread stores and soup kitchens.
• Unemployment created a situation of unrest with riots, protests, and even coups d'état in some countries.
• Teens became drifters; marriages were postponed; birth ratesdeclined; and children grewupquickly,oftentaking on adult responsibilities while the number of women in the workplace increased.
• It influenced social values also. It created a community resilienceinthefaceofadversity.Italsotaught people the value of economic security.
• Impact on colonies:
• The Great Depression severely impacted colonies which were heavily dependent on exports of agricultural goods and minerals.

With the rise of protectionist policies there was a steep rise in prices which affected the living standards in the colonies.

Trapp family of Sound of Music migrated to the US in 1930 s

• Both of these things ultimately intensified ongoing anti-imperial movements in colonies. E.g. in India, Gandhiji launched Civil Disobedience Movement. Various Responses
• Some countries tried to solve the problem on an individual basis. They tried to tighten their purse by curtailing their expenditure. But it proved counter-productive.
• Two measures adopted by individual countries turned out to be counterproductive. ▪ Competitive protectionism ▪ Competitive currency depreciation
• There was a world conference at Lausanne 1932 to discuss the issue, but it failed to reach a consensus approach. Again, in 1933 a conference was organized in London without any concrete outcome.
• Capitalism reacted in two different ways
• Creativereaction: Capitalismtriedtore-define itself inthe US,andevenpicked up some ideas from socialism. ▪ Keynesian Revolution ▪ New Deal Policy of Franklin D Roosevelt
• Destructive reaction: While the Americans were occupied with their own domestic hardships, the Europeans and Asians were occupied with the spread of totalitarian regimes that arose in place of post-war liberal states.

▪ In Japan, the Great Depression led to the rise of militarism.

▪ There was a rise of fascism in Germany, Italy and Spain.

• The Nazi government of Germany tried to give a better solution to this problem. To generate employment, it started recruitment for

the army, construction of roads, and arms production. But this led German economy towards a war.

• USSR claimed to have shielded its economy to Great Depression due to:
• It was a planned economy under state direction and control.
• It was at tha time separated from the world economy, decoupled.
• Its success became eye-catching and that resulted in the progress of socialism in theworld.Thisfurtherposedproblems forcapitalism byhighlightingitsweakness. ▪ Russian economy was thus saved. It didn't face depression. And it also made a huge propaganda out of it.

▪ There was increased attraction of Marxism across the world. In the US, union membership doubled between 1930 and 1940.

Classical Economics Keynesian Economics

• Adam Smith,David Ricardo, Jean-Baptist Say, Malthus etc.
• Advocates self-regulating markets.
• Promotes laissez-faire.
• Thus, the economy would automatically adjust if we unleash animal spirits of the market.
• No government intervention.
• John Meynard Keynes
• Economy doesn't automatically adjust.
• Advocates for active government intervention to increase expenditure

and boost demand. Thus, it promotes government spending on infrastructure, social welfare, education etc to boost demand.

• Keynes suggested that "the Government shouldhavepeopledigupholesand then fill them up".

New Deal Policy of Franklin D Roosevelt

“The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who”

have much; it is whether we provide enough for those who have too little."

FDR

• Initial Response by President Hoover wasfound inadequate and didn't lead tothedesired effect.
• American president FDR (elected in 1932) introduced the policy of 'New Deal' to counter world economic depression.
• In order to create demand in the economy, Roosevelt's government took several measures such as giving subsidies to peasants and the unemployed, encouraging construction works in order to generate employment.
• The response revolved around 3 R's - Relief, Recovery, Reforms
• First New Deal (1933-34)
• To provide immediate relief, stabilize banks, restore confidence in the financial system and implement economic recovery.
• Key programs:
1. Banking Act
2. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
3. USA abandoned Gold Standards (1933)
4. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
5. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)
6. National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)
7. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
8. Rural Electrification Act
• Second New Deal (1935-38)
• It was launched in response to criticism that the First New Dealdidnotgofarenoughinaddressing the underlying causes of the Great Depression.

There was a greater emphasis on social welfare and economic reforms.

• Initiatives:
1. Works Progress Administration (WPA)
2. Social Security Act
3. Wagner Act
4. Wealth Tax Act.
• These initiatives aimed to provide more extensive relief to the unemployed, support labor rights, establish a social safety net, and promote economic recovery.

Thus, the depression cycle was broken. Although there is some sort of controversy as some scholars believed that it was finally WW 2 that, with its heavy demand, led to end of thecycleof Depression.Butthe New Dealalsoplayed itsown role.

Did Keynes/FDR borrow something from the socialist model?

• The New Deal developed into many public works and utilities.
• Creation of government-run projects like Tennessee Valley Project which went against laissez faire.
• Welfare orientation
• Social Security which went against classical liberalism.
• Increased recognition of labour rights.
• The National Labor Relations Act, passed in 1935, protected the right of workers to organize unions and bargain collectively.
• This led to a significant increase in union membership in the United States.
• It legitimized the state's regulatory role.
• Regulation of private industry
• It led to the creation of some sort of mixed economy.
• There was a significant expansion of the role of the federal government in the economy (elements of economic planning)

Fireside Chats New Deal Propaganda Poster

• It was no longer minimal state as per classical economist but now there was maximal government.

However, New Deal was not intended to establish a socialist system in the United States.

Rather, it was an effort to address the economic crisis and to provide relief and support to those who were suffering.

• All thelawswerepassedwithproper dueprocessandtherewerenorevolutionarymeans employed.
• Despite the influence of Keynesian economics, Roosevelt continued the 'sound money' policy and thus kept the fiscal deficit under check.
• It did not involve the nationalization of private industry or the means of production.
• It did not fundamentally alter the capitalist nature of the American economy.
• He focused on the need to secure social justice without destroying democracy.
• He talked about making capitalism work better.

Opinion: It can be considered as a mix of different ideologies, such as progressivism, Keynesian economics, and pragmatism in response to unprecedented economic crisis. It aimed to provide a balance between the needs of the people and the needs of the economy, and it was designed to save capitalism from itself, not to replace it with socialism.

• Economically:
• A new capitalist model based on demand-management i.e. capitalism 2.0
• Politically: A maximal state based on a tilt in favour of central government.
• There was an expansion of the role of the Federal government in economy and society (e.g. Social Security, Works Progress Admin). It fundamentally altered the relationship between state and citizen in the US.

UPSC CSE PYQs - Great Depression

• Critically examine the New Deal of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Did he want to introduce a sort of socialism? [1987, 60 Marks]
• The Great Depression (1928 - 34) was "attended by momentous consequences in the economic as well as in the political sphere." Comment. [1996, 20 Marks]
• President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal "had the wit to start the political economy in a fresh, more promising direction." Do you agree? [1997, 60 Marks]
• The Great Depression (1928 - 34) was "attended by momentous consequences in the economic as well as in the political sphere." Comment. [2002, 20 Marks]
• Whatpolicyinstrumentsweredeployedtocontainthegreateconomicdepression?[GS, 2013]

“Fascism is a lie that tells itself it is true.”

• Umberto Eco

“Fascism is a disease of weakness. It is the fear of the strong and the envy of the weak. It”

is the hatred of the individual for the group and the group for the individual."

• H.G. Wells

“Fascism is not defined by the number of its victims, but by the way it kills them.”

• Jean-Paul Sartre UPSC CSE PYQs Characteristics
• "Extreme nationalism of the Fascist Variety has various faces in various countries, but it has everywhere certain common characteristics." Comment. [1989, 20 Marks]
• "Comparisonofthefascistregimein Italywiththe National Socialistregimeof Germany is almost inevitable. The similarities are obvious, but there is one point of difference which is worth mentioning." Comment. [1991, 20 Marks]
• Discuss the main characteristics of Fascism. [2007, 60 Marks]

Causes

• "The roots of the rise of Fascism lay in Peace Treaties." Comment. [2003, 20 Marks]
• Discuss how Fascism was a response to the post-war situation arising out of political instability, thwarted nationalist hopes, and fears of the spread of communism? [2022,

20 m] Italy

• 'Corporate State' was Mussolini's answer to sociopolitical problems of his country. Elucidate. [1995, 60 Marks]
• Examine the circumstances which led to the overthrow of democracy and the establishment of Fascist dictatorship in Italy. [2017, 20 Marks]

Germany

• What were the weaknesses and difficulties of the Weimer Republic? How did Hitler succeed in establishing his dictatorship? [2004, 60 Marks]
• Hitler was "a creature flung to the top by the tides of revolutionary change, or the embodiment of the collective unconsciousness of a people obsessed with violence and death." Comment. [1984, 20 Marks]

Fascism gradually evolved since the 19 th century. There are conflicting ideas about it:

• According to one view, it was a reflection of ultra-nationalism.
• According to Max Weber, Fascism was a desperate attempt on the part of nobles and aristocrats to regain power.
• According to leftist thinkers, it was a sharp reaction of capitalism against the progress of socialism.

Fascism is a far-right ideology characterized by totalitarian power in the hands of a dictator.

There is a total submission to the state and strong regimentation of society and economy.

However, it is not a very consistent idea. Rather it seems to be a mixture of different ideologies, i.e.

• Authoritarian and anti-democratic
• Anti-liberal, anti-individual
• Anti laissez faire
• Anti-intellectualism
• Anti-communism
• Anti-internationalism

Before WWI, fascism was on the fringes. It was only after WWI that it got wider acceptance among European people. As it developed, there emerged various versions in various nations/leaders. Apart from Hitler (Germany) and Mussolini (Italy), Juan Peron (Argentina), Salazar (Portugal), Dollfuss (Austria), General Tojo (Japan), Metaxas (Greece), General Franco (Spain) were also the Variants of fascism.

Despite differences, there are certain points of similarity, such as:

• Glorification of the power of the state.
• Hegelian nationalism
• Belied in supreme statism. ▪ Mussolini: "everything within state, nothing is outside state, nothing is against state."
• Centralization of administration.
• Totalitarian in nature.
• Glorification of leadership and the promotion of the cult of hero-worship.
• Belief in one party, one leader and one idea. Divergence of opinion was not tolerated. The word of the leader was to be followed rigidly by all.
• Conservative socio-cultural outlook.
• Promotion of status-quo in society and emphasis over customs and traditions.
• Fascism emphasized self-sufficiency of state. It was considered as a pre consideration for creating a strong nation.
• Populism
• The Fascistregimesadoptedpopulistapproachtowidentheirmassfollowing,they promised what people wanted.
• Elements of the welfare state
• Use of the official machinery as well as almost all socio-cultural venues to promote their ideology.
• To make use of mob psychology.
• Social Darwinism
• Militarism
• Follow aggressive foreign policy.
• Belief in expansionism was another common feature among fascist regimes.
• Use of tactical approach and opportunism

Factors behind the rise of fascism in Europe

• The growth of new ideologies like social Darwinism and Freud's psychology,
• Disenchantment of Italy & Germany in the Paris Peace Conference.
• The World Economic Depression in 1929-30 created a crisis in the capitalist system. So, capitalism tried to save itself from communism even through the fascist method.

Who supported Fascism in post-war Europe?

Fascism's support base included following elements

• Small shopkeepers (Petty bourgeoise), small merchants, daily wage-earners, artisans etc.
• Defeated and depressed military elements in post-World war condition
• Ultra-nationalists were utterly dissatisfied with the performance of PPC. Why did Italy and Germany prove a green pasture for Fascist ideology?
• Weak democratic traditions due to their specific nature of nation-building.
• Both Italy and Germany were dissatisfied with the PPC.

Rise of Mussolini in Italy Mussolini formed a party fasci di combattimento (fighting leagues) in 1919 in Milan. It was the official name, but it became popular by the name Fascism. Its symbol was a bundle of sticks.

The factors behind his rise to power

• Situation
• Weakness of Liberal State: Italy's parliamentary system was plagued by corruption and instability. This made it difficult for the government to respond effectively to the challenges facing the country.
• Impact of WW 1: ▪ The war had left Italy with a devastated economy, high unemployment, and widespread social unrest. Many Italians were disillusioned with the government's inability to address these problems.

▪ Theperceivedbetrayalin the Paris Peacefueledultra-nationalismandanti-

establishment sentiments.

• Political Instability ▪ The democratically elected government failed to provide a stable government and resolve economic problems. Italians thus started to lose faith in democracy.

▪ There was fear of communism among many sections of the population.

• Mussolini capitalized on the popular desire for strong leadership:
• Mussolini promised to restore Italy to its former greatness. ▪ He consciously encouraged the ultra-nationalist emotions among the people and started to undo the historical norms which were accepted by Italy in Paris Peace Conference.
• He promised to solve the country's economic and social problems.
• His fascist ideology appealed to many Italians who were looking for strong leadership and a sense of national unity.
• He was a skilled orator and organizer. He was able to build a large following for his fascist movement by appealing to the emotions of the Italian people.
• He followed a thorough opportunist policy in Italy. ▪ Earlier he used to publish a journal Avanti and posed himself as a socialist.

So, at the time of invasion of Libya by Italy, he stood along with socialist internationalism and denounced this aggression.

▪ In 1922, he said he is launching all-out war against socialism.

• He triedtowinoverdifferent socialgroups inhisfavour through givingthem false promises, which were mutually conflicting. ▪ Capitalists were promised freedom from workers strikes.

▪ Workers were promised protection from capitalists' lockouts.

▪ Ultra-nationalists were promised revenge on the PPC.

▪ Middle class was promised law and order establishment.

▪ Students were promised employment.

Capture of power

• But still in the elections of 1921, the Fascist party bagged only 35 seats.
• Now Mussolini changed the strategy and started physical struggle against communists on the streets.
• Then in 1922, he organized 50 thousand volunteers (disciplined blackshirt paramilitary cadres) and carried a March on Rome.
• King Victor Immanuel III succumbed to his pressure and appointed him as the Prime Minister.

The regimentation of power by Mussolini in Italy

Once in power, Mussolini quickly moved to consolidate his control over Italy.

By the mid-1920 s, Mussolini had established himself as the absolute dictator of Italy.

• Concentration of power
• He concentrated all the power in his hands.
• He dismissed the municipal corporations in towns and continued to appoint the officers directly from Rome.
• He declared himself to be the head of the judiciary, army, and education system.
• He destroyed almost the whole election process. He banned all political parties.
• He censored the media.
• Guns and the educational texts
• Indoctrination: He brought changes in the educational curriculum/syllabus.
• Violence: With the support of a secret police organization, OVRA, he eliminated his enemies.
• Religious Policy
• Mussolini initiated to bridge the gap between Rome and Vatican though singing a Lateran Agreement with Pope in 1929.
• It recognized Vatican City as an independent state under the sovereignty of the Holy See.Thetreatyalsoacknowledged Roman Catholicismas the state religion of Italy
• Social control
• Youthorganizationssuchas the Opera Nazionale Balillaandthe GioventùItaliana del Littorio to indoctrinate young Italians with fascist ideology from an early age.
• Dopolavoro (After Work) was a fascist cultural, leisure and recreational organization founded in 1925 for workers.
• Corporatism
• When Mussolini came to power in Italy in 1922 the entire nation was passing through a phase of serious economic crisis.
• It threatened the capitalist system and promoted class conflict in society. Agitations and demonstrations of the working class were quite common. This atmosphere of extreme crisis provided fertile ground to communism.
• Mussolini tried to give a reply to it through a corporate state system. With the support of this system, Mussolini brought the whole economy under strict state control.
• What is Corporatism? ▪ Amodelofproductionwhichwasinspiredby medievalguildsystemas well as modern ideology of syndicalism by George Sorrel.

▪ It means organizing society into "corporations" subordinate to the state.

▪ It advocated the cooperation between employers-employees.

• Objective: To enable Mussolini to counter economic, political and social challenges. ▪ It was viewed as a useful form of social organization for harmonious class relations.
• Suppress the market forces and encourage production to reduce depression during the World Economic Crisis.
• If fascist party member in control of such guild/corporations, then there is less scope for class conflict.
• Thus, strikes, lockouts, agitations and demonstrations became a thing of the past. Entire national energy was to be channelized to higher production, and thus achieve economic revival.

▪ To work as anti-dote to capitalism and strengthen Mussolini's claim to nationalism.

• Evolution ▪ 1926:
• Italian economy was divided in regions.
• In each region, a separate association of employers and that of employees was formed (syndicates). At the head of each association, a member of the Fascist party was placed.
• Total 13 syndicates: 6 capitalists, 6 workers, 1 independent professionals
• These syndicates were placed under the administrative regulation of the government under supervision of Mussolini.

▪ 1927:

• Labour charter was issued to define the responsible of various economic groups (employer and employee) to each other.
• Labourwasproclaimedassocialduty;nobodycoulddenyit. Strikes and Lockouts were prohibited.
• The state became the arbitrator in all disputes between the workers and capitalists. ▪ 1929:
• Political representationwasgrantedto variouseconomicgroupsso that difficulties faced by various groups could be understood quickly and tackled peacefully.

▪ 1934:

• When the bitter impact of world economic depression was visibly felt, the whole economy was brought under the command of 22 corporations.
• 8 for Agriculturalrelatedactivities,8 for Industrialactivities, 6 for services
• It tried to save the economy from depressionary impact and checked intensification of class conflict.
• All these corporations were put together under the National Conference of Corporations headed by Mussolini.

▪ 1936:

• The Lower house of Italian parliament (House of Deputies) was replaced by a new house known as the Chamber of Fascists and Corporations.
• 823 members=66 Fascist Party+757 representativesof the 22 employer and employee corporations.
• Members of the Fascist party and the representatives of corporations used to debate and discussion on the challenges to the Italianeconomy.Thenecessarylaws and regulationscouldthus be drafted easily.
• It was the completion of the legal structure of the corporate state. ▪ However, ultimately failed in its objective. It was broken by the onset of World War II.
• Encouragement to employment among youth by army recruitment.

Rise of Hitler in Germany Hitlerstartedhiscareerasanordinarysoldierin Austrianarmy and this Austrian citizen become German chancellor in 1933. His rise in German politics were response to circumstances prevailing in Germany after WWI. He was the product of his times his rise added a new chapter to European history.

Factors behind the rise of Nazism

• Nazism had its root in German militarism.
• The Treaty of Versailles, in which Germany was humiliated, created a favorable situation for the rise of Nazism.
• The Treaty of Versailles imposed heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany. This led to economic instability, hyperinflation, and social discontent.
• Scared of growing influence of communism, both the Junker Class and the capitalist class strengthened the hand of Hitler or the Nazi party.
• SDPwas German Marxistpartyandwantedtoestablish dictatorship of proletariat. This danger became more imminent after the success of revolution in the neighborhood Russia.

Reasons behind the decline of the Weimar Republic

It was the first republican experience in Germany, but unfortunately it didn't survive.

• The Republican system was a new to Germany.
• The German had always lived under strong Monarchical government. German monarchy was considered a symbol of strength in Germany and republicwastakenasasymbolofweakness.Thus, it failed to find much acceptance among the people.
• Right from the very beginning, this republic was associated with the humiliating treaty of Versailles. So, it could not get respectability in the eyes of common Germans.
• Asthe Weimarrepublicrepresentedacentristgovernment,rightfromtheverybeginning, itfacedthesituationof attackfromrightistandleftistparties both. Attemptstosuppress

theuprisingscontributedto politicalinstability and anerosion ofpublicconfidence inthe government.

• In the Weimar constitution, there was a provision for proportional representation. Due to this provision, a strong government could not be formed.
• Initially, it had to face extreme economic difficulties. Still there was a temporary respite:
• Chancellor Gustav Stresemann's policies brought some recovery.
• Dawes Plan in 1924 helped stabilize the German economy.
• Locarno Treaties ensured peaceful relations with the neighbors.
• In the meantime, there appeared a great depression which undid all the efforts made by the republic. It led to widespread unemployment and social unrest, which fueled the rise of political extremism.
• In the Weimar constitution, there was a provision for a national emergency (Article-48). Misusing this article, Hitler destroyed the republic after coming to power in 1933.

Factors behind the rise of Hitler

• After joining the Nazi party, he quickly rose to prominence within the organization (political skill) due to his powerful oratory skills (charisma) and extreme nationalist and anti-Semitic views. (ideology)
• His Personality was magnetic. Hitler was a great orator. He could hypnotize millions through his speech.
• Hitler started a propaganda campaign in favourof itsparty'sprogram andconsciously promotedasenseofhatredamongcommon Germans against Jews, Jesuits as well as the Communist.
• Under Hitler's leadership, the party grew rapidly, attracting disaffected citizens, particularly those disillusioned by the economic turmoil and political instability following

World War I.Hepromised whatpeoplewanted. Like Mussolini,Hitler alsogave promises to different social groups, for example, the capitalist class, the workers, the youth and unemployed, the ultra-German nationalist etc. He guaranteed restoration of peace, revival of economy and regaining German greatness.

• Initially, like Mussolini, he also tried to capture power by dint of force. However, this Munich coup failed, forcing him to change his strategy. Then he decided to seize power by following the democratic means.
• Party development
• Uniformed disciplined cadres of Brownshirts was established in 1921 called Sturmabteilung (SA) to attack enemies.
• Well-built party machinery to take form of mini-state in itself. ▪ Hitler was ruthless organizer. The Nazi Party machine created by him was extremely effective and efficient.

Capture of Power

• In spite of the best of his efforts, he could not get the expected success. So, he realized that Naziidealsshould have been spread to the rural areasaswell.That'swhyinbetween

1924 and 1928, he worked for creating a base even in the countryside. Notwithstanding that, in the elections of 1928, Hitler's performance was not impressive.

• Contributory factors behind the success of Nazi Party post-1928
• World Economic Depression of 1929-30 proved a game-changer as Hitler's popularity shot up during the time of this economic crisis. Some historians therefore say that had Great Depression not taken place, Hitler would not have become so popular, and remained on the margins of history.
• Dismal performance of Weimar Republic in handling the crisis.
• Still in 1930 elections, Nazi emerged second while SDP emerged as top.
• So, there was dramatic rise of Nazi party but so was increase in Communist seats.
• In the elections of 1932, Nazi party got the majority votes and German president Hindenburg invited him to take charge of Chancellor in 1933. Thus, Hitler came to power.
• From Chancellor, Hitler transformed himself into a Dictator within span of 2 years.

Regimentation of power by Hitler

• Suppression of political opposition
• The Reichstag Fire in February 1933 provided a pretext for the suspension of civil liberties, allowing Hitler to issue the Reichstag Fire Decree, which suspended freedom of the press, assembly, and speech.
• Germany was declared as one-party state. All the other parties except the Nazi party were banned.
• Hitler established the Gestapo, a secret police force that was responsible for suppressing dissent and terrorizing the German people.
• He used propaganda to shape public opinion, promote Nazi ideology and to demonize the enemies.
• "The receptivity of the masses is very limited, their intelligence is small, but their power of forgetting is enormous.

In consequence of these facts, all effective propaganda must be limited to a very few points and must harp on these in slogans until the last member of the public understands what you want him to understand by your slogan." - Hitler (Mein Kampf)

• Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda, controlled the dissemination of information and tightly regulated the media, ensuring that only the Nazi party's version of events was broadcast.
• He censored the media to suppress dissenting voices, and controlled all information that was disseminated to the German people.
• Hitler created a cult of personality around himself, portraying himself as a strong and infallible leader.
• Mass rallies to build support.
• National Emergency
• After coming to power Hitler invoked Article-48 of the Weimar Republic and declared a national emergency.
• In 1934, President Hindenburg passed away. So, Hitler, on thebasisofareferendum,combinedthepostof Chancellor and President, into a single one and occupied the post.
• Gleichschaltung (coordination)
• It meant coordination of all aspects of German society under Nazi control.
• Nazificationofthecivilservice,judiciary,education system,andotherinstitutions.
• It effectively eliminated any remaining opposition and ensured the loyalty of all.
• He purged the party of any internal political rival and ensured complete control.
• Economic Policy:
• In order to put control over the strikes, Hitler dissolved independent trade unions and created German Labour Front. Thus, he brought the working-class under his control.
• On the front of employment, he got unparallel success, as he unconsciously adopted some Keynesian methods for promoting employment by the state through increasing state spending.

▪ Hjalmar Schacht was the economist who helped Hitler to run the economy.

He believed in government interventionintheeconomytoachieve fullemployment and economicgrowth.

He implemented a number of policies to achieve these goals, including public works projects, tax breaks for businesses, and subsidies for exports.

▪ Four-Year Plan to achieve economic self-sufficiency and prepare the country for war.

• Social welfare programs: Public works projects, affordable housing, and the expansion of social services to alleviate economichardshipsfacedbytheworkingclassandtocreateasenseofloyalty and dependence on the state.
• Social policy (established racial state)
• He brought changes in the educational curriculum and encouraged the scholars and artists to glorify the Nazi party and Hitler.
• Hitler and the Nazi party adopted a harsh method for women. They prescribed only Kinder (kids), Kirch (Church), Kuch (kitchen) to women.
• The Hitler Youth and the Leagueof German Girls were created to indoctrinate young Germans with Nazi beliefs.

▪ These organizations emphasized physical fitness, militarism, and racial purity, aiming to create a generation loyal to the Nazi cause and the Führer.

• Hitler promoted a racist ideology that espoused the superiority of the so-called Aryan race while denigrating and persecuting minority groups, particularly Jews, as well as Roma, disabled individuals, and others deemed inferior.

Hitler used the spectacle and grandeur of the 1936 Berlin Olympics to present Germany as a strong and united nation.

He created an image of a "New Germany," free from the problems of the Weimar Republic. He also used the Olympics to demonize Jews and promote his idea of Aryan racial superiority.

▪ Eugenics Under Nazi rule, eugenics became a central component of the racial policies, leading to discriminatory and genocidal measures targeting individuals deemed racially or genetically "undesirable."

• Hitler provided subsidies to peasants because in Nazi conception the greater

value is allocated to 'pure' blood, higher fertility rate and connection with soil.

• Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring (1933), which authorized the forced sterilization of individuals with hereditary diseases or disabilities.
• T-4 Euthanasia Program aimed to systematically exterminate individuals with mental illnesses and disabilities.

▪ Discriminatory laws, such as the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, solidified the racial policies and initiated systematic persecution. Jews were deprived of their citizenship, prohibited inter-racial marriages by Jews, and in 1938, riots started against them.

▪ Concentration camps soon followed for the 'Final Solution'.

• It was the culmination of the policy of eugenics.
• Systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of others.
• Schutzstaffel (SS) under the leadership of Heinrich Himmler, managed holocaust.
• Militarization and expansionist policies:
• Hitler's regime embarked on a program of military expansion and rearmament, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles.
• This aggressive foreign policy was aimed at achieving Lebensraum (living space) for the German people and establishing German hegemony over Europe, ultimately leading to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

Hitler-Mussolini Comparison

Similarities between Mussolini and Hitler

• Both were totalitarian regimes.
• Regimentation of all the powers into the hand of an individual.
• To support extreme nationalism.
• To oppose Communism, Socialism & Liberalism.
• To put a check over the class struggle.
• To introduce an aggressive foreign policy.

Differences between Mussolini and Hitler

Mussolini Hitler

• Less scope for anti-Semitism. He followed it later under influence of Hitler, but it was not inherently anti-Semitic.
• Mussolini strengthened his position but not equally the position of his party. When he started to lose, the party couldn't rise upto the occasion.
• Italian fascism maintained effective state control over economic activities. The corporate state of Mussolini was an example of same.
• Although expansionist, Mussolini was hesitant to go no war with European powers.
• More radical than Mussolini
• Nazism was deeply associated with racial purity and anti- Semitism.
• Pre-peasant bias (supposed pure blood, fertility rate higher)
• Hitler strengthened his position and that of his party also.
• No such corporatist system was enforced in Germany.
• Extremely expansionist, invaded Poland in 1939 and sparked the Second World War

The Spirit of Locarno It was the most serious initiative taken by European power to maintain peace in Europe after the foundation of Lo N but it eroded the moral authority of Paris and doomed the fate of Lo N.

• It was signed in Oct 1925 to remove the causes of conflict from Europe.
• Locarnoislocatedin Switzerlandwastheplaceofgatheringof 7 Europeannations; Britain, France, Germany, Poland, Italy, Czechoslovakia.
• Their leaders gathered to discuss various challenges faced by Europe and to find their solution peacefully.
• Developments
• The countries mutually guaranteed peace in western Europe. ▪ The treaty of mutual guarantee provided that the German-Belgian and Franco-Germanfrontiersasfixedby the Treatyof Versailleswereinviolable
• The treaties of guarantee between France and Poland or Czechoslovakia provided for mutual support against unprovoked attack.
• The Locarno Treaties marked a dramatic improvement in the political climate of Europe in 1925-1930.
• Locarno marked the end of the war period and the beginningof a hopeful new era of peace, cooperation, and reconciliation in Europe.
• They promoted expectations for continued peaceful settlements, often called the

“spirit of Locarno". This spirit was made concrete:”

▪ Germany joined the League in 1926 ▪ Withdrawal of Allied troops occupying Germany's Rhineland.

• Long term consequences:
• Great Britain promised to defend Belgium and France but not Poland and Czechoslovakia. British refusal to guarantee Germany's eastern frontier was the most significant development at Locarno.

▪ This was an act of appeasement on part of Britain.

▪ This was a big setback for the system created by To V as well as for League of Nations.Althoughthe Lo Nwastomaintain this Germaneasternfrontier, but it became clear that the prominent members of the League were not interested in supporting it in the task. Its consequences were quite serious in the long run.

• The Locarno Spirit did not survive the economic and political crisis of the 1930 s. ▪ Western Front: In 1936 Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland, which had been demilitarized by the Treaty of Versailles. So, he repudiated Locarno.

▪ Eastern Front: Germany made no effort to arbitrate its dispute with Czechoslovakia in 1938 or with Poland in 1939.

League of Nations

“There must be not a balance of power, but a community of power; not organized rivalries,”

but an organized common peace."

Woodrow Wilson (1917)

An international organization, 'League of Nations' was formed in 1920. It was born out of atrocities of WW 1 in order to ensure collective peace and promote international cooperation.

• It was founded by peacemakers to protect future generations from the devastation caused by conflicts.

WWI had left a path of devastation throughout Europe, with over 8.5 million people killed. The European economy was in complete disarray. The leader of Paris Peace sensed an urgent need to develop the spirit of internationalism by establishing the Lo N.

• It was based on Wilson's 14 th point, which called for 'A general association of nations' to be formed 'for the purpose of affording mutual

guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike'. In one sense, it was a denial of the old concept of balance of power,which wassupposed to ensure international peace but had failed to do so, and rather created a new condition of war.

• At the outset, its membership was 34, which increased to 60 by 1923. Even India was given an entry as a member.

Thefoundersof the Leagueof Nationsweredesperate to avoid a repetition of the horrors of the Great War.

The main aims of the organization

• Disarmament
• Preventing war through collective security
• Settling disputes between countries through negotiation and diplomacy
• Improving global welfare.

Organizational structure

• Three main organs - Assembly, Council and Secretariat
• Two more institutions were attached to it: The first meeting of the Assembly took place on 15 November 1920 at the Reformation Hall in Geneva.

1923 session

• Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)
• International Labour Organization Although the League ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II, it did have several positive contributions during its existence.

Success of Lo N

• It was not only a European organization but rather a world organization. So, it could potentially deal with issues even outside of Europe. i.e. Manchurian crisiss.
• In the matter of smaller nations, Lo N could work efficiently and could resolve the disputes:
• Aaland Islands dispute between Finland and Sweden in 1921
• A dispute between Germany and Poland over upper Silesia in 1921
• Memel dispute between Lithuania and Germany in 1923
• Dispute between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925 Though there were minor successes involving small powers, overall, the League lacked any real teeth. When it came to the disputes between major states, League faltered.
• Conflicts:
• In 1923 Italy refused to accept the decision of league over Corfu incident.
• The Manchuria crisis of 1931 was another major failure of league Japan invaded Manchuria. League could do nothing to help China against Japanese aggression.
• Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) couldn't be averted.
• Promoting disarmament:
• Article VIII in the Covenant of the League of Nations outlined the League's work with armaments: "The Members of the League recognise that the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations. (...)"
• Permanent Armaments Commission (PAC) ▪ It worked to reduce the number of weapons and military forces in the world.
• World Disarmament Conference (1932-34) ▪ It was attended by 61 states, which included the members of Lo N and others. It symbolised global co-operation to a combined goal of limiting arms.
• It ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II and was dissolved in 1946.

The Lo N had failed in resolving the politico military disputes involving major power. The league also failed to prevent another disastrous war in Europe. It also failed in maintaining the system created by Peace makers of Paris. But the league was not just a politico-military institution. Its socio eco & cultural elements did a commendable job.

• Advancing social justice:
• The Leagueadvocated for socialjusticeandhuman rights,includingtheprotection of minority rights and the prevention of human trafficking.
• ILO was a success.
• Refugees Organization and Health Organization also did good job.
• Providing aid: The League provided humanitarian aid to refugees, including those affected by the Russian Revolution and the Armenian Genocide.
• It is due to the presence of the League of Nationsthat the mandated region could not be annexed by the powerful victor nations. The Mandate Commission of league was also

quite successful because the territories placed under admin control were managed quite efficiently.

Why did the League fail?

• The LON failed in its main objective because it was too closely linked with provisions of Parispeace.Itwasburdenedwiththeimpossibleresponsibilityofmaintaining To V which was having serious practical & moral defects.
• Limited membership:
• Despite wider membership, it did not include some of the most powerful nations in the world, such as the United States, Germany, and the Soviet Union. So, it was merely an Anglo-French affair.

▪ The absence of the United States seriously weakened the League. It lacked the resources and influence it needed to effectively prevent conflict and enforce its decisions.

▪ While Germany was not allowed to join it till 1926, Soviet communist regime was recognized only in 1933. By the USSR joined League in 1934, Germany and Japan left the League.

▪ This narrow international support base proved to be the biggest limitation.

• The Conference of Ambassador located at Paris hurt the prestige of league seriously.
• It was conference of Anglo-French Ambassadors it was to remain in function till the time League started functioning, but this conference continued to operate even after the league had started functioning. On many occasions decisions of the League were overruled by the Conference of Ambassadors, as a result of which league lost its prestige.
• The Great Powers that joined the League - like France and Britain - were generally reluctant to be assertive.
• Lack of enforcement mechanisms:
• The League couldn't enforce itsdecisions to ensure compliance of member states. This lack of enforcement power meant that member-nations could violate League decisions with impunity, which undermined the credibility of the organization.
• Weakness of collective security:
• The League lacked an armed force of its own to enforce any actions to achieve these aims.
• Article Xofthe League's Covenantcalledonmembernationstodefendeach other against aggression (collective security), but it proved ineffective.

▪ Thiswasdemonstratedmostnotablyduring the Manchurian Crisisandthe Abyssinian Crisis, when Japan and Italy, respectively, were able to defy League resolutions without facing any meaningful consequences.

▪ There was a unanimity/consensus clause which was much difficult to implement.

▪ Two organs of the League of Nations were the assembly and council. But both had equal powers.

• Bypassing the League
• The Locano pact of 1925 greatly affected the prestige of the League.
• The policy of appeasement pursued by western democracies also played an important role in the failure of Lo N.
• The Great depression also played an important role in destroying Lo N.
• It reversed the process of economic revival in Europe. The European governments got busy in their internal matters, and these was nobody in Europe who was concerned about Lo N.
• Rise of totalitarianism:
• The rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan in the 1930 s challenged the League's authority and undermined its efforts to promote peace.
• These regimes rejected the League's principles of collective security and international cooperation and pursued aggressive expansionist policies that led to the outbreak of World War II.

Overall, the League of Nations made important contributions to the development of international law and diplomacy. Its work inspired the formation of the United Nations, which has been more successful in promoting peace and international cooperation.

Foreign Policy of Mussolini

Objectives

• To dismantle the clauses of the treaty of St. Germain.
• To restore the glory of Italy in the World and make her one of the great powers of the World.
• To complete the unfinished agenda of Italian unification.
• To established Italian empire in Africa and Mediterranean Sea.
• Aggressive policy was also a characteristic of Fascism.

Mussolini's Initiatives

• Acquisition of Rhodes (Dodecanese):
• Mussolini was committed to strengthen the maritime power and position of Italy.
• Italy put her claims on Rhodes and the Dodecanese islands in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, Mussolini built a naval base there; it was the first success of his foreign policy and strengthen his position in Italy.
• Possession of Fiume port after a treaty with Yugoslavia (1924)
• He brought Albania under protectorate by a treaty of Tirana (1927)
• He invaded the Korfu region in Greece. Although he had to evacuate this region, he got 5 Crore Lira as compensation.

Short-lived Italy-French Friendship: Earlier there was a rivalry between Italy and France but after the rise of Hitler, France and Italy came near to each other.

So,until 1935,Mussoliniwaswithwesternpowers,opposed Hitler and was even willing to give guarantee of safety to neighbors of Hitler. But his friendship with the western power couldn't remain strong for long because Mussolini was compelled to follow aggressive foreign policy.

After the invasion of Ethiopia in October 1935, Mussolini was isolated and then he decided to come near to Hitler.

Germany recognised the Mussolini's conquest of Abyssinia which brought Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany closer to each Maximum extent of Imperial Italy (pink areas denote territory captured during WW 2)

other based on mutual interest and their opposition to Bolshevism. In his speech at Milan in 1936,Mussolinideclared,"The Rome-Berlin Lineisnotdiaphragmbutratheranaxis."In 1937, Mussolini joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, which was earlier signed between Germany and Japan in 1936 and was directed against international communism.

Participation of Italy in Spanish Civil War (1936): Italy wanted to establish her supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea and thus supported Franco in the Civil War, because it realised that success of Franco could of great help to Italy to check French and British influence over the Mediterranean region. Mussolini also wanted to have naval and air base along the seacoast of Spain and could procure metals such as iron, copper, zinc and lead which useful for war purposes and necessary for industrial development of Italy.

In 1939, Germany and Italy signed a non-aggression and defence pact. So, ultimately this phenomenon led to the formation of the Rome-Berlin axis. Later Italy annexed Albania in

Foreign Policy of Hitler

Three basic objectives of Hitler's Foreign Policy

• To denounce the Treaty of Versailles.
• To organise and bring together all the German race under the Third Reich/
• To expand the German empire.

To achieve all these objectives Hitler did not hesitate to adopt any method. The path chosen by Hitler for the achievement of these objectives has been explained in his book 'Mien Kampf'. He adopted all illegitimate methods like threat, assault, arrogant presumptionofpeace,denunciationof Treatiesand War.Hebelievedthatconductofvigorous foreign policy was possible only through transformation of nation into a strongly armed military state.

Hitler's Foreign Policy was the outcome of his domestic compulsions and the prevailing internationalenvironment.Hitlertransformed Germanyfroma war-batteredstateintoagreat power. Besides putting the economy on the rails of deficit financing to create jobs, Hitler achieved quick diplomatic victories, which won him wide acclaim at home and abroad. His early diplomatic manoeuvres resulted in nullifying many of the ill effects of the Versailles Treaty without any bloodshed. Finally, his foreign policy left a lasting impact not only on Germany but also an entire Europe.

Features/elements

• The first objective of Hitler's foreign policy was to dismantle the unjust clauses of the Treaty of Versailles.
• When Germanywaspunished after WW 1,itwasdismemberedandlostn early 13% area.
• The extreme nationalism triggered by German humiliation at the hands of peace makers of Paris guided Hitler's Foreign Policy.
• He targeted each and every provision of this To V so that German national Pride could be restored.
• Ultra nationalism
• He was inspired by radical German nationalism. Germany's national interest dominated his foreign policy moves.
• Domestic compulsions (war economy)
• His economic strategy of producing war goods transformed Germany into a great military power and his military strength also shaped Hitler's Foreign policy.
• Militarist and anti-internationalist
• Hitler's Foreign policywas militarist in nature,because he believed that important issues can be resolved only through military methods.
• Hitler was anti-internationalist. He did not have any faith of idea of international peace and co-operation.
• He was an expansionist in nature. He believed that territorial expansion is the necessary sign of life.
• The idea of Pan Germanism also influenced Hitler. He wanted to integrate all German inhabited territories with Germany.
• Hitler differed from the policy of neo- Bismarckians. Neo-Bismarckians believed that Germany had a definite boundary but Hitler's approach was continental.
• Hitler gave emphasis to the policy of Lebensraum i.e. expansion in east up to the Ural mountain to obtain living space for next 1000 years.
• Hitler preferred to call his empire as Third Reich. The idea of Third Reich also dominated Hitler's Foreign Policy. Hitler wanted to created 3 rd German empire on the line of Great German empire built by Fredrick the great and Bismarck.
• His foreign policy was guided by racial ideology.
• Hitler's expansionist goals were driven by a racial vision of establishing a Greater Germanic Reich and achieving Lebensraum living space for the Aryan race, which necessitated the conquest and subjugation of other nations and peoples.
• There was an element of system in Hitler's foreign policy. He did not move haphazardly to achieve his FP objectives. The elements of aggression and conciliation was maintained in Balance by him to ensure that no Anti-German alliance emerge immediately.

Stages of Hitler's foreign policy The first stage (1933-36): In this stage, he consistently broke the clauses of the treaty of Versailles but simultaneously, tried to convince the allied powers that he was not opposed to the European order.

• Belligerent posture
• 1933 - Withdrew from Disarmament Commission and the League of Nations
• 1933 - Started re-armament program ▪ Soon, reintroduced conscription (compulsory military service)
• 1935 - Saar Region was reintegrated in Germany through a plebiscite.
• 1936 - Sent army in demilitarized zone of Rhineland
• Conciliatory approach
• In various speeches, he constantly declared that he was dedicated to peace.
• In 1934, he signed 10 years No Aggression Pact with Poland. ▪ This move was aimed at convincing the European powers that Hitler was not looking for a military conflict.
• 1935 - he signed a naval treaty with Britain. (Anglo-German Naval Treaty). ▪ Hitler promised to limit German Naval strength to 35%. But it allowed Germany to exceed the limits imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.

The second stage (1936-38)

Now Hitler gauged that Britain and France don't have common threat perception. So, he became slightly more belligerent. Two steps are important in this period. Annexation of Austria (1938) and the capture of Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia on the basis of the Treaty of Munich in Sept 1938.

• Creation of Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis
• 1936 - Rome-Belin Axis was created.
• 1936 - Hitler signed Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan.
• 1937 - Rome -Berlin -Tokyo Axis came into existence when Italy joined Anti- Commintern Pact.
• Spanish Civil War (1936-39)
• Hitler supported General Franco in Spanish Civil War.
• He tested all the latest war technologies and war strategies for effectiveness.
• The victory of Germany side greatly emboldened Hitler and he became more aggressive.
• Annexation of Austria (1938)
• Austriawascomposedof Germans,butthe Paris Peace specifically disallowed its reunion with Germany, despite the fact that it went against the principle of self-

determination.

• Hitler first formed Naziparty in Austria, for fostering pro-German sentiment and undermining the Austrian government's ability to resist external pressure. Then with its approval he moved into Austria and merged it. Then he conducted a plebiscite in Austria to confirm it.
• Sudetenland (1938)
• It was peopled by 30 lakh Germans. Hitler declared that it was his next target. He demanded its return from Czechoslovakia which was given by Peace makers of Paris.
• Munich Pact (1938) - Chamberlain, Daladier, Mussolini, Hitler.

▪ The agreement was brokered on 1 October 1938, in the presence of Dadalier from France and Mussolini from Italy, while Czechoslovakia and USSR were kept out.

▪ The British government pressurized Czechoslovakia to accept demands of Hitler with almost open threat. As a result of this settlement Czechoslovakia was forced to cede 1/5 th of her territory, which had the most powerful fortifications and centres of important industries.

Sudetenland was transferred to Germany as per Munich Pact.

▪ It was a serious violation of the sovereignty of Czechoslovakia and sanctity of To V. This is known as the policy of Appeasement.

▪ The Munich Pact was the climax of appeasement. It was hailed by Chamberlain as 'peace in our time'. However, it didn't stop Hitler rather it encouraged him further. Hitler's true aims were soon revealed when he marched into Prague on 15 March 1939, thereby flouting the pledge made in the Munich Agreement not to make any further territorial claims.

However, this settlement proved to be fateful because six months late Hitler occupied Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia and devoured its remaining part.

Additional Note Spanish Civil War (1936 - 1939)

Spanish Civil War was the outcome of the socio-economic and political crisis faced by Spain after WWI. It was fought during 1936-39 between the democratically elected Spanish government on one side and the alliance of senior military commanders and church on the other.

• Spain was a monarchy till 1930 but it failed to find solutions to economic problems in the wake of WW 1.

Thus in 1931, due to popular discontent, there was the formation of a Republic. However, the democratic and republican ideas were not deep-rooted.

• In 1931 elections,Liberals,socialists,communists-allformedacoalitionandgot success and formed government.
• The 1933 election was won by the right-wing pro-monarchist forces. ▪ In retaliation, socialists called a general strike which developed into rebellion. It was then crushed.
• Inthe 1936 election,the Popular Front ofliberal,socialistsandcommunistswon a narrow victory. They were pro-change and pro-people. ▪ The Right (military officers, clergy, ultra-nationalists etc) came together and staged a coup. General Franco led the coup, which developed into a full-fledged civil war in 1936.
• Perspective: It was an all-European war, fought on Spanish soil.
• Hitler and Mussolini rushed to support Franco, as he also represented Fascist elements.
• Russia rushed to support Popular Front, as Communists were also part it.
• The sympathy of Britain and France was with Spanish republic because it was democraticallyelectedgovernment.Stalinwasalsoexpecting Britianand France to join the war, as Fascism was a threat to the democracies also. But to his surprise, they didn't participate.

▪ Instead, Br-Fr started the mediate and decided that it was an internal matter of Spain and outside powers should not interfere. Following this dictate, as a responsible power, Russia was compelled to withdraw.

▪ However, Germany remained recalcitrant. It didn't accept the decision and extended the support to Franco.

▪ So, the Popular Front was orphaned without USSR support.

• Finally, in March 1939, Franco emerged victorious and captured power.
• Consequences/Significance
• It was one of the most important developments during the inter-war period. Its direct and indirect repercussions were extremely serious. It was not just an internal matter of Spain because it involved Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy

directly. According to Claude Bowers, U.S. ambassador to Spain during the war, it was the "dress rehearsal" for World War II.

• Military perspective ▪ Hitler successfullytested his latest weapons and military technique sand tactics - Blitzkrieg.

▪ For the first time, civilian targets were deliberately bombed to see the effects of civilian death on democratic government. Spanish city of Basque was bombed by German air force resulting in hundreds of casualties.

• For USSR and Western Democracies

▪ Since the British and French sympathy was also attached to Spanish Republican government. There was a possibility of capitalist and communist alliance against Nazism and Fascism, but it proved impossible.

▪ Stalin was disillusioned and realized that it was the larger game-plan of Britain and France to use Fascism against Communism.

▪ So, it led to German-Russian No-Aggression Pact.

• For Fascism ▪ It was a major success and big morale booster to Fascist powers in Europe. It emboldened Hitler and his foreign policy became more aggressive.

▪ In course of war, Hitler-Mussolini developed better coordination.

Mussolini developed firm faith in the leadership of Hitler.

• This newfound German confidence pushed the world into the second great war in 1939. It ended in March 1939, while within six months, in Sept 1939, WW 2 started.

Additional Note Policy of Appeasement

• One of the most significant factors that led to World War II was the policy of

Appeasement adopted by Britain and France towards Germany, Italy and Japan. The two countries felt that if the genuine grievances of the Germans and Italians were removed,theywould feel satisfied and not to disturb the peace of the world. However, their policy of Appeasement encouraged Hitler and empowered him to push the world in to yet another war. The USA was not willing to give up her neutrality hence, she merely watched.

• Rationale
• It was the outcome of various compulsions of western democracies. It was not a matter of choice to them.
• To Avoid War (Pacifism) ▪ WW 1 had left behind a trail of destruction and there was a sense of disillusionment. Thus, Britain and France were trying to avoid the war.

▪ The Britishand French Governmentwereunderextremepublicpressure to avoid war.

▪ Chamberlain thought that it's better to allow Hitler to get it, otherwise he would have to defy the entire European Order which would be more dangerous.

▪ The failure of the League of Nations left western democracies in little choice but to maintain peace in Europe through appeasement.

• Bruised nationalism and genuine demand ▪ There was a realization among the leaders of Britain and France that mistakes were committed at Paris during the peace conference. They believed Germany had certain genuine grievances.

▪ The feeling that the Versailles Treaty had gone too far in the direction of seeking vendetta was indeed widespread in the British public sphere

• The fear of communism

▪ The left-wing alternative to the Appeasement Policy was the Popular Front adopted by the Comintern. Its engineers led by the USSR were indeed the harshest critics of Hitler's policies and were acutely aware of the dangers of promoting his aggressive foreign policies.

▪ The western powers, including the socialists, were more afraid of a Bolshevik threat than a fascist one and would have chosen to trade with the latter rather than the former. The western democracies rather believedthat Germanyand Italycouldbeusedasdefensivewalltocheck spread of communism into west.

• Balance of Power ▪ Britainwantedtomaintainthebalanceofpowerininternationalpolitics.

Therefore, it short-sightedly expected Germany, the Soviet Union and Japan to check and fight each other and by the mutual conflicts to exhaust one another thereby permitting Britain to maintain her isolation.

• Germany was a big market for British goods. Revival of German economy was expected to benefit Britain.
• Chamberlin isoften deemed a coward for his "appeasement"of Hitler but some historians argue that the Munich Conference was a stalling tactic to allow

Britain to prepare for an inevitable war with Nazi Germany ▪ The internal weakness of Britain was yet another reason. Her economic conditiondidnotpermithertheluxuryofsuchaninvolvementin Europe again. British would have liked to avoid another bloody conflict this time led by Hitler.

• Last of all, the inability of the leaders in Britain to understand the character and nature of these dictators led them to a belief that the dictators would

honour their words once they were permitted to annex territories they wished.

They were sadly disillusioned in 1939.

• This policy of appeasement commenced in the early 1920 s. It was intensified after Neville Chamberlain became British PM in 1937. He believed that if the demands of Hitler were fulfilled peacefully then a war be avoided in Europe.
• Dawes Plan (1923), Locarno Pact (1925), Young Plan (1929)
• Japanese capture of Manchuria (1931)
• Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)
• Toleration of aggressive activities of Hitler: Rearmament of Germany, fortification of Rhineland, Annexation of Austria and Sudetenland etc.
• Civil war in Spain
• The policy of appeasement has been criticized because:
• It was based on wrong premise of bruised German nationalism and limited German ambition.
• It was not a successful policy. It is ineffective.
• It is morally wrong.
• Outcome
• It allowed Germanyand Italyto emerge asmajor militarypowers. It demolished all the forms of security against Germany which had been devised after 1918. This military rise of fascist forces ultimately led to the second world war.
• International relations deteriorated, during the years of appeasement into naked conflict to power between rivalcamps. This conflict led to the World War II.
• Appeasementassured Hitlerthat Alliedpowerswouldnottakeanystrongaction against him because spread of communism was more grave challenge for

western powers and Hitler declared his anti-communist policy. So, it emboldened the fascist forces to take western forces for granted. The warning issued by western democracies fell on deaf ears. This over confidence was responsible for German attack on Poland which triggered WWII.

• It spelleddoom to thefate of the system created by Paris Peacemakers because all its provisions were allowed to be violated.
• It also doomed the fate of League of Nations which lost its credibility as it could not maintain the system made by Paris peacemakers. Third stage (After 1938): Annexation of Czechoslovakia by Germany and attack on Poland.
• 1939 - Soon, the whole of Czechoslovakia was annexed.
• This actof aggression of Hitler shocked the entire Europe. It made two things clear
• It was not a bruised German nationalism, but German imperialism. Hitler's target was not simply to annex the German populated regions but to expand German region.
• And secondly, the policy of appeasement was not working. The western democracies realized that the ambitions of Hitler knew no limit. They abandoned the appeasement and decided to confront Hitler with military in future.
• Britain and France signed treaty with Poland to guarantee its security.
• 1939 - Hitler demanded return of Danzig port. He also demanded rail and road links across Polish corridor to connect both parts of Germany.
• This was the most legitimate demand of a Hitler but by this time the western democracies had abandoned their policy of appeasement, and they did not consider this demand of Hitler as genuine.
• 1939 - Hitler signed a No-aggression pact with USSR. (Molotov- Ribbentrop Pact) Signed by the Foreign ministers of USSR and Germany.
• Overt Clause: Mutual non-aggression for 10 years.
• Covert Clause: Secretly agreed to partition Poland.
• So, this pact was a part of German planning to attack Poland.
• This was a master stroke of German Foreign policy. It became the immediate factor behind the second world war.
• It shocked the western democracies who were appeasing Hitler as against Soviet Union.
• In the Eastern part, Germany made Russia free from competition while in the Western part, Russia made Germany free from competition. So, it emboldened Hitler too much.
• 1939 -
• 1 Sept: Hitler invaded Poland.
• 3 Sept: With it, Britain and France declared war against Germany, thus started the WW 2.
• 17 Sept: Stalin joined Hitler to divide Poland.

Origin/causes of the Second World War

Accordingto Erick Hobsbawm,itwasawarof 31 yearswhichhadendedon 15 th August 1945.

A number of factors were accountable for the war:

• Legacies of WW 1
• Treaty of Versailles (mistakes made by the peacemakers of Paris) ▪ Devastating impact on German economy as well as wounded nationalism, aggrieved nationalism. It was unjust and dictated treaty. Germans didn't tolerate it.
• Lack of cooperation between Britain and France in implementation of the treaty

▪ Severe punishment to Germany - differences cropped up between Br and Fr over this. This was a major factor. Their failure in adhering to the terms of Treaty created room for Hitler to do his adventure.

• Failure of League of Nations
• Failure of Disarmament
• World Economic Depression
• Rise of Dictators
• Rise of Fascist ideology and extreme nationalism
• Conflict of ideologies, Fear of communism
• Policy of appeasement
• Formation of Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis
• German attack on Poland Additional Note 'Nazi foreign policy debate' Whether Hitler had a grand strategy for German expansion or whether his actions were primarily opportunistic and reactive? Also, was WW 2 inevitable?
• Traditionalist historians argue that Hitler did have a grand strategy for German expansion, which they call Lebensraum (living space).
• This Section of historians believe that Hitler's expansionist policy was to continue until German frontiers were to reach Ural Mountains, considered as natural boundaries for Germany. Thus, Hitler's outlook was continental.
• Hitler's writing in Mein Kampf and speeches laid out his vision of a German empire that would encompass all of Central and Eastern Europe.
• Hitler's aggressive intentions (territorial expansion) were evident from the outset. Hitler's actions, such as the reoccupation of the Rhineland, the annexation of Austria, invasion of Poland etc. as consistent with his long-term objectives.
• Such a scenario would have subjugated entire Europe to Germany and because of this a major war with Germany was inevitable.
• Revisionist historians argue that Hitler did not have a grand strategy,but instead made decisions based on his immediate circumstances and goals. Nazi foreign policy was

more opportunistic, reacting to circumstances and evolving situations rather than following a predetermined master plan.

• Hitler's foreign policy was often contradictory and that he was willing to change his plans abruptly. Hitler was not a military strategist and that his decisions were often based on his personal intuitions and beliefs.

▪ AJP Taylor's thesis was that Hitler, in foreign policy terms, was a normal German leader. He continued the same foreign policy of the Weimar Republic i.e., wanting the destruction of the Treaty of Versailles and wanting her former territories back, all by peaceful means, not aggressive. His argument was that Hitler wished to make Germany the strongest power in Europe. He was an opportunist, but he did not want, nor did have a long term plan for a war.

• Hitler's actions can be explained by factors other than Lebensraum, such as his desire to avenge Germany's defeat in World War I or to consolidate his power within Germany or domestic pressure etc.
• These historians believe that Hitler was looking only a short war with Poland, he did not intend a World war. ▪ Hitler attacked Poland because he did not believe that Britain would support Poland military.

▪ In Locarno Britain had refused to guarantee sanctity of German polish border.

▪ Even after the war brokeout, Hitler tried to negotiate peace with Britain to the end of war.

There is no easy answer. However, it is clear that even though Hitler might not have intended a World War, but it was his actions ensured it. His aggressive expansionist foreign policy terrified the entire Europe and became a major factor in the outbreak of World War II.

• He destroyed the system created by peacemakers of Paris gradually. By 1938-39,

Germany had emerged as a big military power. His aggression became higher with the passage of time. The annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia had convinced western democracies that Hitler had no respect for existing international order and that he was determined to push German national interest at the cost of International Peace.

• The Non-Aggression Pact with Russia greatly strengthened the resolve of western democracies to counter German aggression, because alliance of Nazism and

Communism was threatening the very existence of western capitalist world. It was the fear created by this German soviet alliance that forced Britain and France to declare war on Germany when Hitler attacked Poland.