Paper 2›Modern India›Economic Development & Political Change

Economic Development and Political Change

Tribals are a group of people living in relative isolation mostly in forests and desert areas having a distinct language, culture, religion and identity.

In India, tribals constitute roughly 8% of the population. There are more than 715 tribes spread across different parts of India, the largest concentration being in Central India and North East India.

Interaction of tribals with outsiders in Modern India

Historically in ancient and medieval period, there was very little interaction between tribals and mainstream society.

It is only with the advent of industrial capitalism that the mainstream society and the tribals started interacting frequently.

From the early nineteenth century onwards, with the acceleration of British imperialism, tribal regions started being infiltrated with British as well as outsiders such as Zamindars, moneylenders, traders, missionaries, government functionaries, agents and army.

Impact

It led to loss of political autonomy of tribals.
Economic disruption and exploitation was the norm during the British rule as the British industries needed raw materials.

Forcible social integration and marginalization of tribals followed.
Tribals faced the loss of culture due to mainstream machinery and its exploitative nature which not only wanted to grab their resources but also to convert them into taxpayers.

Tribal Response

Frequent tribal revolts and uprisings erupted throughout the British rule.

These were localized and violent spurs of anger.

These uprisings were violently suppressed by the British and only increased their exploitation.

Despite being actively reacting against the British exploitation, tribals were never in a position to set the agenda of national movement. The agenda and the movement were

set up by the mainstream leaders which did include tribal affairs as well. For example, during Civil disobedience movement, Congress included Forest Satyagraha in Central India and Karnataka. At the same time, there was no programme to liberate tribals from

Zamindars and moneylenders. Thus, although tribals stated participating in national movement, they were no yet able to decide the issue of the struggle.

The incomplete process of tribal integration into mainstream politics resulted in their marginalisation and preserved the exploitative relationship between the tribals and outsiders.

It was the recipe for socio-political disharmony and left-wing extremism and thus a sensitive response to the tribal issue was needed.

Nehru's Formula for tribal integration

Following independence, different scholars, sociologists and anthropologists were divided on the issue of tribal integration. Two positions were put forward-

To keep them completely isolated
To completely integrate them into mainstream society.

Pt Nehru rejected both and with the help of the British anthropologists Verrier Elvin developed a unique policy framework known as Tribal Panchsheel which envisaged tribal

development on their own terms and not with borrowed ideas but with their own genius. The five principles of Tribal Panchsheel are as follows-

Tribals must develop with their own genius
Their land must be protected
Their language must be protected and promoted
Tribals must be included in their own administration
There should be minimal government in tribal areas.

Implementation of these principles required a balancing between different objectives namely national economic development, tribal economic development, national integration, tribal autonomy, national security and political stability.

Impact of Tribal Panchsheel in different areas North East India

NEFA and Arunachal Pradesh

In accordance with the principles of Tribal Panchsheel, the North East Frontier Agency was created in 1948 out of the Assam division. These principles were implemented sincerely and sensitively bringing better integration.

In 1971, through the North East Areas (Organisation) Act NEFA was made a union territory. Finally, it got full statehood in 1986.

Creation of other North Eastern states

In other parts of North East India, Tribal Panchsheel was not integrated with the same degree of sensitivity resulting in constant conflict.

In 1951, through Assam (Reorganisation of Boundaries) Act, an entity known as Greater Assam was created consisting of the Brahmaputra valley an territorial tribal areas such as Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.

These tribal areas had their own Tribal Hill Councils. However, the tribals were not emotionally or psychologically integrated with the Assamese society.

Thus, when the Assam government declared its policy of Assamisaton to make Assamese the state language, tribal areas formed a grand alliance and the movement often became violent.

Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura 1959- Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Councils were given greater autonomy with all powers of a state except separate Governor, separate legislature and separate and a separate executive.

1969- Meghalaya was made a sub-state of Assam.

1971- Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura were given statehood.

Nagaland

In 1955, led by PZ Phizo, the Naga declared independence and the government had to deploy the army leading to a prolonged conflict.

Ultimately, a moderate group of Nagas led by Dr. Imkong Liba Ao agreed to drop the demand for independence and in accordance with the agreement, Nagaland was made the sixteenth state of India in 1962.

Mizoram

A similar separatist movement emerged among the Mizos led by Lal Denga. Once again, the government entered negotiations with the moderates resulting in Mizoram becoming a Union territory in 1971.

However, a splinter group emerged and the conflicts continued till 1986 when a new Accord was signed. According to this, Mizoram was given full statehood in 1986.

Central India

In Central India, tribals are spread cross a vast region covering Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

In Central India, tribals are a minority with poor socio-economic development.
There major issues included illiteracy, poverty, backwardness, underdevelopment, underrepresentation in local assemblies, exploitation of natural resources, displacement due to land acquisition and social discrimination.

This resulted in widespread unrest and protests. The tribal movement in Central India took the shape of the Jharkhand movement.

Jharkhand Movement

The earliest leader to mobilise the tribals of Central India was Jaipal Singh.
In 1950, he founded the Jharkhand Party demanding a separate tribal state in South Bihar.

However, the States Reorganisation Commission rejected this demand on the grounds of linguistic similarity in North and South Bihar.

Gradually, due to continuing exploitation, the movement became radical and the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha emerged in the 1970 s under Shibu Soren. It joined hands with other radical groups such as the Marxist-Communists and a violent struggle started.

The violence continued till the 1980 s when Shibu Soren entered mainstream politics.
During the 1990 s, the JMM became highly influential due to the onset of the coalition era in both the centre and the states.

This period also witnessed a strong movement in Eastern Madhya Pradesh for a separate tribal state.

Ultimately, through the MP Reorganisation Act, 2000 and Bihar Reorganisation Act, 2000, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand emerged as the 26 th and 28 th states respectively.

Constitutional provisions and safeguards These include

a) Schedule 5 b) Schedule 6 c) Article 46 d) Creation of Tribal Advisory Councils e) Scheduled Tribes Commission f) Reservation in the Lok Sabha g) Reservation in State Legislative Assemblies in proportion to their population.

h) Reservation in employment and education i) Special powers to Governors of certain states with tribal populations j) Welfare schemes to provide education, health, employment and remove poverty

These provisions and safeguards have yielded tangible benefits in the form of better tribal integration, political stability, better health and education outcomes and political

empowerment. However, more efforts are needed to safeguard tribal interests since they continue to remain some of the most vulnerable sections of the Indian population.

Q. Highlight the issues faced by tribals post-independence. How far have the efforts to alleviate these problems been successful?

Tribals constitute 8% of the total population in India who are a distinct group of relatively isolated people who have maintained their unique culture since ages. However, the modernization accompanied with industrialisation has come as a significant challenge to their way of life.

Issues faced by tribals post-independence

Political backwardness- Although tribal issues have gained significant attention since independence, the issue has itself lacked participation by tribal leaders. They have rarely entered mainstream politics.

Lack of autonomy- despite several attempts such as fifth schedule and sixth schedule etc., tribal regions have faced interference from state as well as parastatal bodies frequently.

Economic interference from outsiders- projects such as mining, agro-forestry etc. led to the infiltration of outsiders. Alongwith state machinery, these have significantly reduced the scope of economic participation by tribals in their traditional mode of life.

Social marginalisation- forcible social integration without accommodating their unique lifestyles has led to the marginalisation of the tribals.

Loss of culture- tribal practices and rituals such as tree worship and an increasing trend of homogenisation have led to loss of their unique culture.

Further complications emerged in the tribal relations with the rise in left-wing extremism and international conspiracy resulting in a violent movement.

The Indian response has been mix-

Tribal Panchsheel

Tribals must develop with their own genius
Their land must be protected
Their language must be protected and promoted
Tribals must be included in their own administration
There should be minimal government in tribal areas.

Counter insurgency operations have been launched by Central as well as state forces.
Economic development- infrastructure development has been one of the biggest means to win the hearts of the tribals.

Despite such attempts, tribals continue to face some problems such as socio-economic backwardness, displacement, political underrepresentation and social marginalisation which have led to lingering social tension vis-à-vis tribals.

Finally, it can be said that introducing Tribal Panchsheel and constitutional safeguards in spirit are needed to be implemented honestly in order to attain the actual goal of national integration.

Land Reforms Issues

Landlessness- more than two-thirds (71%) of Indian farmers were landless. They did not own any land and lived as tenants or bonded labour on the land of others. According to

Hamza Ali, Indian farmers could be categorized into-

Rich farmers- more than 10 acres
Middle farmers- 5-10 acres of land. They depended upon hired labour during the sowing and harvest season.

Poor farmers- 2-5 acres. They depended only upon family labour. In the busy season, they also worked on the fields of others.

Landless peasants or labourers- they worked on the lands of Zamindars and rich peasants and paid rent.

Credit facility- a 1954 RBI survey concluded that only 7% of Indian farmers had access to institutional credit. The others were forced to borrow from exploitative moneylenders.

Technological access- Most Indian farmers used primitive methods of farming. In 1951, only three percent Indian farmers were using iron ploughs. The availability of artificial

irrigation was low (13%) and agriculture was primarily rain-fed. Access to synthetic fertilizers, modern pesticides and high yield variety seeds was virtually non-existent.

Farmers also lacked sufficient supply of cheap electricity. Thus, farming could not be mechanized.

As a result, the rate of agricultural growth was stagnant at roughly 0-0.5% while population was growing at 3% per annum leading to a severe food shortage. Hurdles

Land reforms could not be implemented properly since most of the leaders themselves came from the landowning families.

Additionally, the government functionaries at almost all levels- upper, middle and lower were involved atleast in some capacity with landlordism. For example, the low level

functionaries such as Patwaris were themselves the rent collecting agents of big zamindars.

Another major hurdle was the unavailability of proper land records. In some cases, land records had not been updated for than a century.

The country lacked necessary infrastructure to carry out land consolidation and agricultural modernisation.

The paucity of funds and expertise also slowed down the process of agricultural modernisation and extension of formal credit.

Finally, the legal profession staunchly opposed the regulation of moneylending since the moneylending business opened a major field of litigation and contributed to a major proportion of litigation and constituted a major source of income for lawyers.

Lastly, the constitution makers had made the right to property a fundamental right which would have made land distribution legally impossible.

Efforts

Since land is a state subject, states had to take the lead.
In 1949, the UP State Assembly passed the UP Land Reform Act or the Zamindari Abolition Act which became the model law for other states.

First Constitution amendment Act 1951 removed the Right to Property as a fundamental right and added the ninth schedule which protects social legislations from judicial review

However, beyond this the process of land reform remains low due to a combination of hurdles.

This resulted in the emergence of left-wing extremism especially in southern and eastern India prompting the Congress to resolve to accelerate the process of land reforms at its Nagpur session in 1959.

By 1961, almost all states had passed their own land reform laws including Zamindari abolition, tenancy reform and placing a land ceiling ranging from 3 to 27 acres.

Between 1961 to 1971, the proportion of land owning farmers had increased from 31 to 91% with Bihar topping the list at 99.6%

However, this success was misleading.

In reality, the north Indian states had performed extremely poorly. Grave problems such as benami transactions, eviction of tenants, small landholdings and low productivity derailed the process of land reform.

Caste played a very important role in the abortive process of land reforms.

On the other hand, some states such as West Bengal, Kerala and Kashmir were effective in land distribution but land reforms were accompanied by ideological and communal violence.

Gandhian efforts were also made to carry out land reforms. Acharya Vinoba Bhave launched the Bhoodan movement in the Telangana region in 1951. A parallel Gramdan

movement was launched in Odisha. These movements called upon Zamindars to voluntarily donate a portion of their lands to be distributed among peasants. However, the response was lackluster in both cases.

Marxists accused the Gandhians of trying to sabotage the radical leftist movement which was emerging among peasants as seen by the violence in Kerala and West Bengal.

Critical analysis

While the land reform programmes succeeded in abolition of Zamindari, protection of tenants and made farm credit available to peasants, in North India much of this progress

remained on paper. The added complication of caste divide in the agrarian structure resulted in caste based riots and politics from the 1970 s onwards. The worst affected areas were Eastern UP and Bihar.

While West Bengal, kerala and Kashmir were more successful with respect to land reforms, bloodshed could not be avoided resulting in the growth of Left-wing extremism in areas where land reforms were stalled.

The two most significant manifestations of this were-

Naxalite movement
Bandits of Chambal

The people of Bengal and Punjab faced a great degree of uncertainty at the time of partition. The Boundary Commission announced its award on the 18 th August, 1947. The

general atmosphere of hatred created by the Muslim League's Direct action programme led to an enhanced sense of anxiety.

Chaos erupted as Lahore was given to Pakistan. Its Hindu and Sikh residents had accepted to be the part of India.

Both India and Pakistan assured their religious minorities of full state protection but were unable to convince sizeable sections of their minorities to stay in place.

Popular resentment boiled over taking the shape of communal outbursts. This triggered a major communal pogrom on both sides of the border which could not be calmed for several months.

The law and order machinery was poorly equipped to handle such a major crisis and failed to protect the lives, property and dignity of the minorities.

More than one crore people were forced to flee and more than ten lakh were slaughtered. Such a massive humanitarian crisis had never occurred before or since India's partition.

Women, children and the elderly were the worst affected.
The problems of the migrants did not end at the end of their journeys. Those who survived their ordeal found themselves without food, shelter, clean drinking water or medicine.

They were constantly threatened without the presence of adequate police protection.

The most painful was their immense sense of loss. Their lives had been completely uprooted and many would be permanently separated from their loved ones. Response to the refugee crisis North western India: Delhi-Punjab belt

The largest number of refugees came to this region. Providing security, food, clothing shelter, medicine, water and sanitation were the immediate tasks before the administration to provide relief to these victims of partition.

For months, they had to live under open skies, on roadsides, along railway lines or in makeshift camps in cities such as Jalandhar, Kurukshetra, Delhi, Faridabad etc.

A rehabilitation centre was setup with the task of-

Reuniting separate family members,
To rehabilitate the refugees both physically and emotionally.

Most migrant from Punjab were farmers who had to be provided land in order to rebuild their lives.

Land distribution was done in two phases-

A small parcel of land was assigned to each family
Further distribution was done on the basis of 'claimed loss' and 'graded cut'.

Land left behind by the Muslim migrants from India to Pakistan was distributed among the India bound refugees.

However, the general complaint was that their new lands were too little and less fertile than the land they had left behind.

Refugee colonies were set up in cities such as Jalandhar, Delhi and Faridabad to resettle the urban refugees.

Financial assistance was provided to them to settle new businesses and construct their houses. East and North East India: West Bengal and Manipur-Tripura region

A major complication of the refugee crisis in East India was that migration was a one- way affair i.e. from East Pakistan towards India.

Therefore, there was virtually no land or property to be distributed among the incoming refugees.

Most refugees in Bengal remained concentrated in Calcutta where large slums sprouted up. They faced severe problems such as the lack of basic amenities, healthcare,

education. Employment opportunities were also poor since the economy was unable to absorb the additional workforce.

Another problem was that the bulk of refugees in the east were poor, illiterate and unskilled which further deepened the crisis.

Some refugees from East Pakistan also migrated towards the Assam valley and the tribal dominated regions of Tripura and Manipur.

They faced hostility from locals due to linguistic, cultural and ethnic differences.
The problem was most severe in the sparsely populated tribal regions where the influx of refugees threatened to change the demographic complexion.

This created political conditions that are relevant even today and created major hurdle towards the process of tribal integration and nation building in the north east.

Western India: Gujarat and Maharashtra

Roughly twenty lakh Pakistani migrants from Sindh came to this region in the months following partition.

They faced problems similar to refugees in other regions but with even greater complications.

They suffered an added sense of loss of culture. The locals of Gujarat and Maharashtra treated them as unwanted outsiders with a foreign identity and culture. This created problems with regards to their assimilation.

They were discriminated against in matters of business and employment. Additionally, the state machinery remained apathetic to their issues and progress towards rehabilitation was slow.

Due to lack of land and housing, both urban and rural migrants from Sindh had to live in slums in cities such as Ahmedabad, Surat and Bombay.

Slowly, they were able to rebuild their lives to emerge as one of the most influential business classes in western India. However, they received little outside or state help.

Impact of the refugee crisis

More than fifteen lakh refugees each arrive in north western, western and eastern India.
Roughly forty lakh Muslim migrants migrated from India towards Pakistan.
The largest influx of refugees was seen in the Delhi-Punjab belt causing a major demographic shift. Delhi's famous Indo-Islamic culture was destroyed overnight and came to be dominated by Punjabi culture.

In Calcutta and Bengal, communists mobilised migrants by providing them relief and promising reforms. Thus, the politics of West Bengal slowly came to be dominated by the Communist Party.

In Delhi, the Jan Sangha and RSS became extremely popular due to their relief work among refugees. They also benefitted from the undercurrent of intense communal hatred and succeeded in recruiting the refugee youth.

In the Gujarat-Bombay region, the influx of Sindhi refugees strengthened the linguistic movement. The native Gujarati and Marathi speakers were threatened by the possible dilution of their linguistic identity.

In the tribal dominated north east, the influx of Bengali refugees created political complications which manifested themselves in the form of strong movement for tribal

independence which often became violent. This threatened political stability, national security and national integration.

The theme of the refugee crisis became prominent within the popular culture. The subjects of partition, suffering of the refugees, separation communal relations,

exploitation of women and human struggle captured the imagination of poets, novelists, short story writers, musicians, painters and cine makers.

Some important works touching these themes include Tobatek Singh written in Urdu by Manto, Train to Pakistan in English by Khushwant Singh, Pinjar in Punjabi by Amrita Pritam, Tamas in Hindi by Bhishm Sahni.

More than 75 years after partition, the wounds of the refugee crisis may have been healed but the scars remain.

Poverty, crime, addiction, truancy and communal feelings continue to linger with the refugee communities being the worst affected.

This is often perceived to be the result of the generational trauma of partition. As such, rehabilitation should not focus only upon physical and economic resettlement. It should also involve cultural protection and emphasis on mental health.

Democracy and first General election During the National Movement

The national movement had been deeply democratic especially since the formation of Congress.

Major demand of the nationalists was the introduction of a limited, constitutional, responsible and democratic government.

Since the beginning of the 20 th century, self-rule and democracy became the twin objectives of the nationalists.

Gandhiji broadened the social base of the movement thus enlisting virtually all sections of the population in the struggle for democracy.

From the 1920 s onwards, people of the Princely states also joined the struggle for national unification, national independence and democracy.

The Nehru report of 1928 raised the demand of universal adult franchise and the abolition of separate electorates to create a self-ruled democratic and secular India.

The entry of workers and peasants into the national movement further strengthened the case for democracy.

Same pattern was echoed by the rising participation of dalits, Muslims and women in the national movement.

Therefore, the national movement had a rich legacy of democracy. Constitutional debate

Following the transfer of power, major constitutional debate erupted within the nationalist leadership with regards to the following questions-

Form of government

With regards to the first question, one group of leaders led by Dr Rajendra Prasad and C. Rajagopalachari suggested that India should have a Presidential form of government i.e.

indirectly elected.

They argued that India was not ready for direct elections and Presidential form of government could represent continuity of the Governor General's office within a Republican system.

Pt Nehru insisted upon a Westminster Parliamentary system with direct elections.

The Westminster system was the logical choice since Indian democracy was modeled on British democracy. Moreover, indirect elections would be against the legacy of the national movement.

Timing of election

Some prominent members of Nehru's cabinet wanted to delay elections. They argued-

The country was facing sever crisis and would not be able to bear additional burden of the general elections.

Law and order machinery was not equipped to provide necessary security.
The bulk of voters were illiterate and were susceptible to caste and communal appeals.

Threat of muscle and money power was extremely strong.
The task of registering voters had not been completed and would require a massive undertaking.

The infrastructure needed to conduct elections in remote and distinct areas was nonexistent.

Ensuring the neutrality of officials would be a big challenge.
Both domestic and foreign experts had expressed doubts regarding the preparedness of elections.

If the elections could not be performed successfully, it would tarnish India's image and could threaten national unity.

Pt Nehru insisted upon conducting elections as soon as possible arguing that the ordinary masses would be unable to taste the real fruits of freedom till they are able to elect their own governments.

Extent of franchise

Prominent leaders such as Dr Rajendra Prasad and C. Rajagopalachari suggested the gradual introduction of Universal Franchise.

Pt Nehru argued that democracy and independence would be meaningless without equality. Limited franchise would prolong the exploitation of the underprivileged by the dominant minority.

Nehru's approach in the First general elections

Pt Nehru emerged as a true statesman insisting upon direct elections with Universal Adult Franchise as soon as possible. Leading from the front, he convinced other leaders and it was declared that elections to be held in 1951.

Election Commission of India was set up on the 25 th January 1950. It had one Chief Election Commissioner (Sukumar Sen, an ICS officer with Maths background).

Representation of People's Act, 1951 provided for elections of Lok Sabha as well as state legislative assemblies with the principle of direct elections with Universal Adult Franchise.

Election Commission of India began registering voters primarily by using government school teachers. It also began training state officials to conduct elections. It

simultaneously began preparing for elections by creating the necessary infrastructure such as polling booth, transportation and security apparatus.

Once the voter list was prepared, it had to be prepared again since more than thirty lakh names were found to be fictitious.

To overcome the hurdle of mass illiteracy, election symbols were assigned to the different parties.

Campaigning was done through newspapers, speeches, public rallies, pamphlets, posters and door to door campaigning.

State run All India Radio was prohibited from caring campaign messages.
The election was planned in several phases between October 1951 to February 1952. This was done to prevent the overburdening of the election machinery Policy agenda of different parties

The Congress promised progressive and secular society with poverty removal and economic growth.

Jan Sangh accused the Congress of minority appeasement and promised to restore Hindu cultural pride.

Communists accused the Congress of being a bourgeoisie party and promised structural reforms for workers and peasants.

The Scheduled Caste Federation accused the Congress of being an upper caste sympathiser and promised to address the problems of dalits and women.

The DMK came out with an agenda of Tamil pride.
Pro-Hindi groups promised to make Hindi the national language. Day of the election

The election began with the Chini tehsil (Himachal Pradesh) and in several phases was conducted across India.

The atmosphere was festive and the people participated in a celebratory mood.

Voter turnout was healthy at 58%. The voting percentage was highest at Kottayam (Kerala) i.e. 84% and lowest at Shahdol (UP) at 18%.

The Congress won absolute majorities both at the centre and the states. Almost all top figures of the national movement were elected but there were few upsets such as Dr Ambedkar and Morarji Desai.

Impact and Significance of these elections

The biggest success was the participation of the people in healthy numbers with the hope of change.

In a hierarchical society, the principle of one person, one vote was revolutionary. In a single stroke, centuries of social disability and political discrimination were wiped out.

The myth that the illiterate Indian masses were unfit for democracy was shattered. They rose above the politics of case, religion, language or class and rejected the divisive

agenda of some parties who choose progressive and secular society as promised by Congress.

Neutrality of state officials was another major achievement.
The composition of first Lok Sabha represented the true spirit of India. Some members were rich, others were educated, others illiterate. Some Hindi speakers, some regional,

some representing business interests, others workers, some were liberal and others orthodox.

The elections also legitimised the constitution since most former constituent assembly members were elected to the Lok Sabha.

The success of the election silenced critics, both foreign and domestic.
The success of the elections also raised India's prestige especially among the newly independent countries. Newly independent countries started looking towards India as a role model.