Social and Cultural Developments

"I am going to British India, but I shall not be Governor General. It is you that will be

Governor General."

--Lord William Bentinck to James Mill

Before 1813

• Indomania of Orientalists:

• Orientalists were admirers of the Indian culture and religion, primarily based on

Indian scriptures; Indian past was seen as a cradle of civilization and great cultural

heights.

• Though theydid acceptthat the Indian societyhad fallen from that ancient golden

age, they also thought that the ancient culture could be revived through

introducing some of its codes in judicial courts and administration.

• Even though the officialsof the EICwere eager to 'reform and improve' Indian society but

were forced to maintain an indifferent attitude. This was due to two reasons:

• Till about 1813, the EIC was mainly interested in its trading activities and

maximizing its profit from the revenue administration.

• Secondly, the Company also did not want to disturb the strong religious base of

the Indian Society.

• Thus, although Jonathan Duncan, a Resident of Benaras, attempted to stop female

infanticide and some of Wellesley's officers tried to stop the practice of sati, these were

mere exceptions and did not change the larger picture for the better. India continued to

practise these social evils.

By 1820 s, Orientalism as a policy was discarded by a set of people; ambitious, somewhat

arrogant, and aggressive officials. Theyfollowed James Mill and James Mill's mentor Bentham

and tried to apply utilitarian principles in India for India's possible transformation into a

modern society. It was a part of the modernization project that many of these early 19 th

century officials, now more confident about their ability to change India, tried to carry out.

People like Bentinck, Macaulay, Charles Grant visualized a new western India.

Factors behind the change:

Earlier,the Britishpolicywastomaintainthetraditionalstructureofsociety,butinthis period,

the British policy emphasized the reforms and changes in the social sector.

Material Factors

• British policies during this era were guided by the interest of industrial capitalism - to

develop India as a supplier of raw material to British industries and a captive market for

British goods.

• Social reform and English education were designed to create a class of Indians who were

British in tase and morality and thus eager to consume British manufactured goods.

• India would need westernized legal system, supply networks and a larger bureacracy. It

would be affordable only if Indians, trained in western ways of thinking and behavour,

would be available in sufficient number to be recruited.

Political Logic:

Orientalism in British policy was the consequence of a relatively weak empire. Once British

control in the early part of the 19 th century became firmly established after the fall of

Marathas, this earlier policy was discarded. Anglicism/westernization was the ideological

articulation of a more confident imperialism, when Indian resistance had been completely

removed, and the British had become so confident about their ability or longevity that they

were now posing as the civilizers of the empire.

Social Mileu:

By the beginning of the 19 th century, there was a new crop of officials who came from

relatively upper class or aristocratic background, like Lord Cornwallis, Marquis Wellesley, Lord

Bentick. Their attitude was different from their predecessors'.

Insteadofgettingimbibed into Indianculture,like Warren Hastings,theyhadaspecificmission

in mind: not only to establish the British superiority in India, but also eventually create an

India in a new mould. They represented a completely new philosophy of imperialism which

took upon itself the role of the civilizer.

Ideological Factors: Liberalism, Utilitarianism, Evangelism

With Industrial Revolution,thesocial-culturalatmospherein Englandstartedtochange. There

was a rise of a new group of thinkers in Britain, known as the liberals and the utilitarians, in

the first half of the 19 th century.

• Liberalism is based on the idea of individual liberty and equality before the law.
• Protectingindividualrightsandfreedoms,suchasfreedomofspeech,religion,and

association, as well as the right to property.

• Importanceoflimitedgovernmentandtheruleof law,whichareseenasnecessary

to protect individual rights and prevent abuses of power.

• Utilitarianism is based on the principle of maximizing happiness/pleasure and minimizing

pain/suffering.

• According to Bentham, Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two

sovereign masters: pleasure and pain. (famous pleasure-pain arithmetic of

Bentham) So, Bentham defined utility as pleasure or happiness.

• Utilitarianismseesmoralityasamatterofproducingthebestoutcomesforsociety

as a whole (Promoting the greatest good for the greatest number of people)

• Issue:

i. These statistics of pleasure ignored individual freedom or rights. Thus,

utilitarian thought showed a certain indifference towards forms of

government. For them, it was happiness and not the liberty, that was the

end of the government.

• Thinker: Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, John Stuart Mill etc.
• Evangelism:
• The Evangelicals believed that it was their moral duty to preach the Gospel, to

show the people the right path of humanity, to oppose idol worship, superstitious

and cruel beliefs.

After 1813: (Indomania → Indophobia)

The new generation in 1820 s was influence by these ideas. Utilitarians (Mill father and son)

were critical of Indian society at the root of which they saw 'primitive barbarism', 'despotism'

and an encompassing religious tyranny.

• They marginalized India's past achievements and focused on present degenerate

condition of Indian society.

• Their basic premise was that the Indian society was totally degenerated. In fact, it

was in the grip of all kinds of social evils.

• It could be reformed only by governmental intervention. Thus, they now turned

against the tolerance and respect for Indian civilization characteristic of the ages

of Clive and Warren Hastings.

• James Mill's The History of India (1817), presented a full picture of the

degenerated Indian society.

▪ He took the extreme view that India never had a glorious history; on the

contrary, he argued the country had always been at a lower level of

civilisation.

▪ He said that Indians would have to come out of their stupor, forget their

history in order to achieve equality with the West.

Reform

• James Mill made happiness of Indians contingent upon the nature of laws, the form of

government, and the mode of taxation. For him, an effective and good government,

capable of enacting good laws was needed for India. Only then, the people of India could

be freed from Brahminic domination.

• John Stuart Mill (son of James Mill) further extended this line of thinking. But in certain

respects, he differed from his father. According to him, educational programs were to be

more effective than mere legal remedies.

• Civilizing Mission

• Although utilitarians favoured the idea of a representative democracy to ensure

good government in England, they considered that people are India were not yet

ready for it.

• They believed that the real task of the British was to westernize Indian society, to

raise the Indian people on the scale of civilization, so that Indians can become

worthy of self-government. With the help of British laws, institutions, educational

system etc. Indian could progress and gradually rise in the civilizational scale in

future.

• Thus, Indians were required to live under the guidance of the British.

▪ Thus,apaternalistideawasalreadyinherentinthekindofliberalismof the

Mills: India was to be changed but changed under British guardianship.

• So, this was the self-imposed obligation, a sacred duty of British, to civilize the

Indians. Such a view provided legitimacy to colonial rule as the civilizing mission.

They started to influence the British policy towards India and soon its impact was witnessed

in India. The colonial administration started to develop a major reformist agenda for the

Indian society. State was considered as an agent of change and it was emphasized that good

laws, strong centralized state and efficient administration would bring about an improvement

in the life of people.

1. Smithian doctrine of laissez faire. It was against monopolistic practices.
• The Charter Actof 1813 and 1833 weredeeplyinfluencedby Utilitarianismas they

gradually abolished the Company's monopoly over trade.

1. Land Reforms
• The introduction of Ryotwari settlements in Madras/Bombay presidency and

Mahalwari in parts in NWFP/Punjab was also inspired by Utilitarianism. These

settlements were opposed to the role of landlords.

1. Legal codification
2. Socio-religious enactments: for abolition of sati, slavery and infanticide and legalization

of window remarriage

1. The education policy formulated during GG of Lord William Bentinck
• Instead of classical knowledge/education, the education which provided means

of livelihood was more important for the utilitarians.

1. Missionary works

(A) Official Social Reform Measures (1820 s-57)

Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General who initiated, directed, and

implemented the policy of reform in India. He was appointed as Governor-General of India in

1. Unlike his predecessors, he focussed on reforms and retrenchment, rather than

expansion and conquest. His objective was to modernize the government policy in areas of

law, language, education, social reform, finance and administration.

• Sati Prohibition

• Lord William Bentinck's Government passed a

Resolution in 1829 (Resolution No. XVII) that

declared Satias'culpablehomicide'or'suicide'(ifthe

woman died). Punishment would be given to both:

thosewhoattempted Satiandtothosewhoinstigated

it.

• The same law was implemented in Bombay and

Chennai in 1830.

• Female infanticide was criminalized.
• Thugee was stamped out.
• Other reforms by Bentinck:

• The language of government and the high courts was

changed from Persian to English,

• The currency was standardized as the Bengal silver

rupee.

• Internal customs were abolished.
• Mughal emperor's head was taken off the coinage.
• Indians were more closely involved in the structure of

Company rule, especially in the lower ranks of the

judiciary.

• Slavery abolition

• William Bentick was instrumental in creating the

groundforabolitionofsla very.He bannedslave trade

within the EIC territory and prohibited the export of

slaves in 1833 after the recommendation in the

Charter Act of 1833.

• Initially, British officials in India pursued the route of

mitigation and amelioration (e.g. suppressing the

export trade of slaves), instead of abolition. Finally, it

was legally abolished altogether in 1843, during the

tenure of Lord Ellenborough.

Post William Bentinck Reforms:

• Human sacrifice was banned by Lord Hardinge (1844-48)

• It was mostly common among Gonds, India's largest

tribe.

• Lord Dalhousie era:

Memorial in Calcutta

Victorian Morality

The sari was worn

without a blouse and

petticoat before the

British Raj. During the

Victorian era, baring

one's chest or being

blouseless was seen as

improper, so the Raj

promoted the wearing

of blouses and

petticoats with ruffled

hems.

• Religious Disability Actallowedapersoncouldinheritthepropertyfromhisfather

even after religious conversion.

• Widow Remarriage Act (1856) permitted a Hindu widow to re-marry.
• His third important decision was to provide grants-in-aid for the missionary

schools.

▪ When critical points were raised against his decision, he agreed that

secular education would be provided even in these missionary schools.

▪ Besides, he also conceded that the schools run by the Indians would have

the same facilities.

(B) Anglicist-Orientalist Controversy

Whenthe Englishcompanyemergedasanimportantpoliticalpowerin Indiaafterwinning the

Battle of Buxar and by signing the treaty of Allahabad but for almost 50 years, company did

not pay much attention to the educational advancement of India. It remained busy in

exploiting Indian resources while development of India was not its concern and did not make

any effort to educate Indians in English in a big way.

The Charter Act of 1813 had three major changes with respect to Education.

• Opened India for the traders and other British people.
• Lifting prohibition on missionary activity
• Responsibility of public education (Clause 43)

• English company to keep aside a sum of Rs. 1 lakh/per annum for educational

advancement of India. Company would undertake educational responsibility and

duty of the Indian people.

• "…….A sum of not less than one lac of rupees in each year shall be set apart and

appliedtotherevivalandimprovementofliterateandtheencouragementof the

learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge

of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India".

However, this money was not spent for a decade because of lack of unanimity about the

syllabus and medium of instruction. The Company was also reluctant initially to spend the

money as it had no definite policy and agency. Thus, this section remained inoperative till

1823.

Meanwhile, Calcutta experienced significant growth and development in the early 19 th

century, with a large and increasingly wealthy population engaged in commercial activities.

English-language education also saw a rapid growth in demand, supplied by Fort William

College and the Protestant mission in Serampore. To cater to this demand, the independent

Hindu College was established in 1817, offering modern subjects in English to Hindu boys

eager to absorb Western education as a qualification for employment.

The Company had declined to involve itself in the founding of the Hindu College, but in

recognitionofthechangingcircumstancesitsetupa General Committeeof Public Instruction

in 1823 bythe Governor General John Adams.Itsmemberswere H.T.Prinsepand H.H.Wilson.

However, the activities of the Committee for the decade from 1823 clearly indicate its

inclination towards Orientalism.

But the opinion was rapidly growing in favour of English education because missionaries had

started to popularize English education; Anglicization of bureaucracy and legal system was

taking place, and English education was regarded as a panacea for all social ills. Soon, a group

of aspirational Bengalis emerged who rejected the traditional conservative practices and

wanted to embrace western modernity.

Thus, some young members in the Committee started to oppose Oriental approach. In 1832

thesharpdivisionofopinionin the Committeeledtotheriseoftwodistinctandhostileparties

of equal number - the Orientalists (classicists) and Occidentalists (Anglicists).

Oriental Party Anglicist Party

Proponents H.T Princep, HH Wilson

Charles Trevelyan, Charles

Grant, Alexander Duff.

Whom to

Educate?

Imparting education to the traditional

upper castes

Educating the upper and

middle strata of the society

to produce native

Government employees.

What to

teach?

Oriental culture was not inferior to

Western culture. Preserve and use great

native knowledge. A foreign culture should

not be transplanted in Indian soil.

• Teach Sanskrit and Arabic books.
• Translation, Printing, Publication of

classical works (Revival and

Improvement)

• Literature = English

literature, European

knowledge.

• Printing and publication

of books on western

learning. (Revival and

Improvement)

Medium of

Instruction

An imposition of English language upon

the people would provoke their

resentment.

Western content can be

delivered only in English

language.

Due to equal division in the Committee, it was very difficult to transact any business and no

decision could be reached.

Meanwhile, in 1833, a new Charter Act was passed which had certain provisions with the

impact on education:

• India was fully opened to the missionaries of all nations.
• Indians knowing English became entitled to get high posts under the Government.
• Therewas administrative centralization of Indiawhich raised the question of language of

government transaction.

• It increased the educational grant from Rs. 1 lakh to 10 lakh

Lord Macaulay, who came to India in 1834 as the first law member, was appointed as the

chairman of the committee in 1835, and he supported Anglicist group. He wrote his famous

minute on February 2, 1835, in favour of English education.

Despite the objections of the Orientalists, William Bentinck, who already supported English

education, passed a resolution on March 7, 1835, and gave his verdict in favour of the

Anglicists. This resolution proclaimed that 'the objective of the British Government ought to

be the promotion of European literature and science among the natives of India, and that all

the funds appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed on English

education alone'.

Thus, the issue was finally resolved.

• The stipend being given to students in Oriental schools or colleges was immediately

stopped.

• All expenditure on printing of all oriental works was discontinued.
• English became medium of education in the country.

• Lower level: western education in vernacular medium
• Higher level: English medium

• English became important for government jobs.

• In 1837, the Persian language was abolished as the court language and was

substituted by English.

• Lord Harding passed a Resolution in 1844, declared that for all kinds of

government posts, a clear preference would be given to those who could read and

write English.

• A new circular in 1854 made English education compulsory in government jobs.

• This education policy was based on downward filtration approach.

• I feel... that it is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate

the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may

be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern, - a class of persons

Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in

intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the

country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western

nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge

to the great mass of the population.

The decision ushered a new era in the field of modern Indian education with far-reaching

effects.

Further Development in Education

Despite some progress by 1853, education had still to reach the masses. Downward filtration

did not take place, and the vernacular education continued to be neglected both by the

Government and the English educated Indians.

The home authorities in England now felt that the education of the entire country was the

responsibility of the State. It is in this context that Wood's Dispatch (1854) assumes

importance because it altered the downward filtration theory of Lord Macaulay. It isthe most

important document of British education policy in India and is rightfully considered as the

Magna Carta of English education in India.

Recommendations of the Wood's Dispatch:

• Mass education was the responsibility of the government and ought to be implemented

effectively. A separate department of education in every Indian province should be

created.

• It conceived the education at three different levels:

• Primary (vernacular language)
• Middle level (vernacular + English)
• Higher level (English)

• Thus,

• Attention to be given for extension of education, both English and Vernacular.
• New middle schools, especially vernacular schools and technical schools and

colleges should be established.

• Institutions for the purpose of training teachers should be established.
• Universities to be established in the three Presidency's towns.. These Universities

had to only conduct the examinations for testing the knowledge of students who

were taught elsewhere.

• A system of granting aid to privately-run schools and colleges should be

introduced.

▪ Instead of government actually directly promoting institutions of

Education barring a few major centers, it was important to resort to a

grant-in-aid system in order to encourage private initiatives in the field of

education.

• Female education should be encouraged.

The importance of Wood's dispatch can also be understood by the observation of H.R. James

(historian) "The Dispatch of 1854 is a climax in the history of Indian education: what goes

before, leads up to it; what follows flows from it." Most of the clauses of Wood's dispatch

were implemented. The first three modern universities were set up at Calcutta, Madras and

Bombay.

Aims and objectives behind British education policy

British educational policy in India was guided by British colonial interest. They wanted to

create a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but British in taste, opinion, morals and

intellect. This class was supposed to:

• Consume Britishindustrialgoods: sothatmarketof Britishgoodscouldbeexpanded and

Indian could be habituated in western way of life.

• Cheaper clerks: The western education waspropagated in India to train Indians for lower

administrativepositions. Itwaspracticallynotpossibletoappoint Europeansevery where

European were too costly as well.

• Develop fellow-feeling and loyalty towards British empire.

• Accordingto Macaulay,the westernization in India would keep the British interest

safe for a long time even if British rule comes to an end.

• English education was regarded as a panacea for all social ills.
• De-culturize Indians with secular education in order to spread Christianity.
• Implied ambition of the Empire to make English the global language by making a

populous country like India speak English.

• "It is likely to become the language of commerce throughout the seas of the East.

It is the language of two great European communities which are rising, the one in

the south of Africa, the other in Australia,-communities which are every year

becoming more important and more closely connectedwith our Indian empire... of

all foreign tongues, the English tongue is that which would be the most useful to

our native subjects." - Macaulay

English Education: Consequences

The intentions of English were more selfish than noble. Although India did move towards

modernisation, this was more of a side-effect than an intended efforts of the British.

It did more harm done than good and the immediate negative impact of the colonial English

education policy was profoundly devastating.

• Decline of well-functioning traditional pathashala system as reported in Adam's Report

• Traditional institutions started to languish due to the loss of protection and

patronage.

• It had a detrimental impact on mass education. In 1947, just 16% literacy rate in India

(Among women, it was 8%)

• Mahatma Gandhi's 1931 speech at Chatham House, London: India is more

illiterate today than it was a fifty or a hundred years ago… because the British

administrators, when they came to India, instead of taking hold of things as they

were, began to root them out. They scratched the soil and began to look at the

root, and left the root like that, and the beautiful tree perished. The village schools

were not good enough for the British administrator, so he came out with his own

program. Every school must have so much paraphernalia, building and so on..

• Curriculum: Teaching of English language and literature, humanist education and liberal

arts were emphasized but not western science and technology. It was an important issue

• scientific education was not intended to be imparted to Indians.

• It was Indians had to take a lot of efforts to make scientific knowledge accessible

to Indians.

• By the end of the 19 th century, a large community of English educated Indians was

created but could not be absorbed as professional or offered jobs. There were not

enough opportunities and soon a problem of educated unemployment crops up.

• A large number of colleges were setup for liberal education and a handful of

medical colleges by the turn of the century. Technological institutions were very

small in number. It didn't lead to modernization of the economy. Even after

introducing English, neglect of modern science belied the hope of scientific

revolution and modernization.

• Downward filtration led to Cultural colonization:

• Extreme emphasis on English language also led to the atrophy of cultivation of

Indian knowledge systems.

• Now, the original ideas were generated in Britain, while Indians were just

supposed to translate and imitate. It ensured intellectual subservience to the

mother country and Inferiority Complex

• Theory of downward filtration also created a lot of internal divisions due to asymmetric

spread of education.

• It created a divide in the education system - between languishing Indian

vernacular system in large parts of India and a handful of western education

institutions limited for urban elites.

• Religion: By 1880 s in Bengal, where Muslim constituted majority population, the

numberof Hinduspassing Universityentranceexamination was 1200 whilethatof

Muslims was merely 66-70, merely 5%.

• Caste: During 1880 s, out of 6800 scholars registered at the University of Madras,

66% were Brahmins while there population was merely 3%.

• Region: Between 1864 and 1873, the largest number of degrees were awarded

form Calcutta University (12,000), followed by Madras University (5,500) and

Bombay University (2700)

• Rural and Women's education lagged badly behind throughout the 19 th century.

Unintended positive impact:

• English educationwasperhapsthebiggest boon as Indiansnot onlygot accessto western

knowledge, but they also even got a language to communicate with each other. While

English language was to unite India as one administrative nation state it was also to unite

Indians as one people.

• Creative engagement with the West

• In history writing: new historical methods to write the history of our own country

using your own resources.

• In pursuit of Sciences: Modern science from the West was learnt to project a sort

of nationalist science.

• Socio-religious Reforms: People like Raja Rammohan Roy and his followers in the

Brahmomovementtriedtorecast Indianreligioussysteminthelightofthelessons

that they had derived from their knowledge of Christianity.

• If Englisheducation created aclassof Indianswhowouldbeloyalto the British rule, itwas

also instrumental in creating a class of Indians who would be opposed to the British rule.

It was this small group of elite Indians, inspired by western liberal ideas, provided a social

basis for the modern nationalism.

• It led to the modernization of Indian script, languages, literature.
• English was also to continue benefit Indians long after the British had departed. It

unwittingly played an important role in future economic success of India.

Thus, English language education acted as both liberating as well as colonizing force and its

effects can be seen even today.

(C) Evangelical Activities

Q. The Christian Missionary propaganda from 1813 onwards was "often insensitive and

wounding." Comment. [1999, 20 m]

In 1792, Charles Grant, a key advocate for spreading Christianity in India, identified 'ignorant

religious beliefs' as the primary obstacle to progress of India. He proposed that introducing

Christian teachings could dispel ignorance among the Indian population. William Wilberforce

later promoted Grant's ideas in the British Parliament, leading to the passage of the Charter

Act of 1813. This act removed restrictions on Christian missionaries entering India, marking

the beginning of Christian outreach in the country.

• Impact:

• It had a wounding effect on self-confidence of Indians. Vivekananda quote "The

child is taken to school, and the first thing he learns is that his father is a fool, the

second thing that his grandfather is a lunatic, the third thing that all his teachers

are hypocrites, the fourth that all the sacred books are lies! By the time he is

sixteen he is a mass of negation, lifeless and boneless."

• Such propaganda alsoled to contemptof Indiansto fellowconverted Christian and

increased hostility, rather than mutual amity.

• Among the Northeast tribes: American Baptists insisted on wholesale

abandonment of community customs and traditional festivals - de-culturization,

thus enhancing religious hostility.

• Quickened the social reform:

• Gandhiji said that the efforts of missionaries spurred Hindu reformers to address

internal issues. Missionaries' eagerness to convert Hindus and condemn social

problems like untouchability intensified reformers' commitment to uplift and

integrate oppressed sections into the broader Hindu society.

• Some counter-perspectives were presented.

• Mahatma Gandhihadopposed Conversionstaunchly while Ramkrishnashowedall

religionsasdifferentpathstosamegod,andthustrue, and therefore obviatingthe

need of conversion at all.

• In some cases, however, the reaction also emerged with equally anti-Christian

polemic. E.g. Swami Dayanand dismissed Christ as a mere carpenter's son living in

wild and poor country, 'that is why he prays for daily bread.'

• Mutual criticism also led to mutual learning of faiths.

• There developed a livelytradition of public debate in oral/print in the 19 th century.

Although acrimonious, it created space for serious and important discussion

around questions of theology, belief and practice. (eg Raja Rammohan Roy).

• However, in the 20 th century, such doctrinal discussions declined with large scale

emergence of communal identity politics.

Q. Christian missionaries and Colonial state were often complicit in the agenda of

conversion. Do you agree? (15 Marks)

As per KM Panikkar, conversion under colonial aegis was a kind of mental and spiritual

conquest that was often supplemented by the political authority (e.g. Goa Inquisition.)

However, in the British India, the relation between the missionaries and the colonial state

were never static, they shifted across time. They were sometimes symbiotic sometimes

conflicting.

Before 1813, the EIC, with the primary aim of profit maximization, opposed open missionary

work in India in order to avoid unnecessary provocation to Indians (eg Vellore Mutiny in

1806). Instead, it tried to reduce the administrative cost by supporting oriental studies and

winninglocalcollaborators.Thus,therewererestrictionsonmovementof Europeansin India.

Initial efforts at conversion had to take place by by-passing the Company state, as in the case

of the Baptist mission of William Carrey which preferred to settle in Danish Serampore.

However,withreligiousrevivalin Englandasareactionto French Revolution,industrialization

and individualism, evangelicals (eg Charles, Grant, William Wilberforce) pressurized to open

India for missionary work. The decades between 1813 to 1857 exhibit state-missionary

closeness. Missionaries were now free to preach and proselytize.

• According to Sanjay Seth and Sujit Sivasundaram, missionaries supported the spread of

scientific-secular education to de-Hinduize Indian mind and prepare it for Christianity.

• Gauri Vishwanathanhascitedseveralinstancesof state-missionarynexusbehind religious

conversion like evangelic officers in Punjab, missionary support to social reform agenda

of William Bentinck or Lexi Loci Act in 1850 to help the converts.

However, it is very hard to draw unilinear state-missionary relationship.

• Even after 1813, as per Antony Copley, there were many checks on the missionary

activities.Majorityconversionswereby Germanmissionsandnot state-supported English

missions.

• Parinita Shetty has shown that more than the state, the officials supported missions in

their personal capacity.

In the aftermath of major setback of 1857, and as per the Queen's Proclamation, the post-

1857 colonialstateresortedtoa cautiouspolicyofnon-interventionintheexistingsocia land

cultural practices. Sometimes, missionaries entered the conflict with state policies, as Rev.

James Lang did during Indigo rebellion.

As the modern states no longer needed any religious sanction to exercise their power, the

state-religion linkage became further diluted over time.