Paper 2›Modern India›Caste and Ethnicity after 1947

Caste and Ethnicity after 1947

Tribals are a group of people living in relative isolation mostly in forests and desert areas having a distinct language, culture, religion and identity.

In India, tribals constitute roughly 8% of the population. There are more than 715 tribes spread across different parts of India, the largest concentration being in Central India and North East India.

Interaction of tribals with outsiders in Modern India

Historically in ancient and medieval period, there was very little interaction between tribals and mainstream society.

It is only with the advent of industrial capitalism that the mainstream society and the tribals started interacting frequently.

From the early nineteenth century onwards, with the acceleration of British imperialism, tribal regions started being infiltrated with British as well as outsiders such as Zamindars, moneylenders, traders, missionaries, government functionaries, agents and army.

Impact

It led to loss of political autonomy of tribals.
Economic disruption and exploitation was the norm during the British rule as the British industries needed raw materials.

Forcible social integration and marginalization of tribals followed.
Tribals faced the loss of culture due to mainstream machinery and its exploitative nature which not only wanted to grab their resources but also to convert them into taxpayers.

Tribal Response

Frequent tribal revolts and uprisings erupted throughout the British rule.

These were localized and violent spurs of anger.

These uprisings were violently suppressed by the British and only increased their exploitation.

Despite being actively reacting against the British exploitation, tribals were never in a position to set the agenda of national movement. The agenda and the movement were

set up by the mainstream leaders which did include tribal affairs as well. For example, during Civil disobedience movement, Congress included Forest Satyagraha in Central India and Karnataka. At the same time, there was no programme to liberate tribals from

Zamindars and moneylenders. Thus, although tribals stated participating in national movement, they were no yet able to decide the issue of the struggle.

The incomplete process of tribal integration into mainstream politics resulted in their marginalisation and preserved the exploitative relationship between the tribals and outsiders.

It was the recipe for socio-political disharmony and left-wing extremism and thus a sensitive response to the tribal issue was needed.

Nehru's Formula for tribal integration

Following independence, different scholars, sociologists and anthropologists were divided on the issue of tribal integration. Two positions were put forward-

To keep them completely isolated
To completely integrate them into mainstream society.

Pt Nehru rejected both and with the help of the British anthropologists Verrier Elvin developed a unique policy framework known as Tribal Panchsheel which envisaged tribal

development on their own terms and not with borrowed ideas but with their own genius. The five principles of Tribal Panchsheel are as follows-

Tribals must develop with their own genius
Their land must be protected
Their language must be protected and promoted
Tribals must be included in their own administration
There should be minimal government in tribal areas.

Implementation of these principles required a balancing between different objectives namely national economic development, tribal economic development, national integration, tribal autonomy, national security and political stability.

Impact of Tribal Panchsheel in different areas North East India

NEFA and Arunachal Pradesh

In accordance with the principles of Tribal Panchsheel, the North East Frontier Agency was created in 1948 out of the Assam division. These principles were implemented sincerely and sensitively bringing better integration.

In 1971, through the North East Areas (Organisation) Act NEFA was made a union territory. Finally, it got full statehood in 1986.

Creation of other North Eastern states

In other parts of North East India, Tribal Panchsheel was not integrated with the same degree of sensitivity resulting in constant conflict.

In 1951, through Assam (Reorganisation of Boundaries) Act, an entity known as Greater Assam was created consisting of the Brahmaputra valley an territorial tribal areas such as Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.

These tribal areas had their own Tribal Hill Councils. However, the tribals were not emotionally or psychologically integrated with the Assamese society.

Thus, when the Assam government declared its policy of Assamisaton to make Assamese the state language, tribal areas formed a grand alliance and the movement often became violent.

Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura 1959- Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Councils were given greater autonomy with all powers of a state except separate Governor, separate legislature and separate and a separate executive.

1969- Meghalaya was made a sub-state of Assam.

1971- Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura were given statehood.

Nagaland

In 1955, led by PZ Phizo, the Naga declared independence and the government had to deploy the army leading to a prolonged conflict.

Ultimately, a moderate group of Nagas led by Dr. Imkong Liba Ao agreed to drop the demand for independence and in accordance with the agreement, Nagaland was made the sixteenth state of India in 1962.

Mizoram

A similar separatist movement emerged among the Mizos led by Lal Denga. Once again, the government entered negotiations with the moderates resulting in Mizoram becoming a Union territory in 1971.

However, a splinter group emerged and the conflicts continued till 1986 when a new Accord was signed. According to this, Mizoram was given full statehood in 1986.

Central India

In Central India, tribals are spread cross a vast region covering Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.

In Central India, tribals are a minority with poor socio-economic development.
There major issues included illiteracy, poverty, backwardness, underdevelopment, underrepresentation in local assemblies, exploitation of natural resources, displacement due to land acquisition and social discrimination.

This resulted in widespread unrest and protests. The tribal movement in Central India took the shape of the Jharkhand movement.

Jharkhand Movement

The earliest leader to mobilise the tribals of Central India was Jaipal Singh.
In 1950, he founded the Jharkhand Party demanding a separate tribal state in South Bihar.

However, the States Reorganisation Commission rejected this demand on the grounds of linguistic similarity in North and South Bihar.

Gradually, due to continuing exploitation, the movement became radical and the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha emerged in the 1970 s under Shibu Soren. It joined hands with other radical groups such as the Marxist-Communists and a violent struggle started.

The violence continued till the 1980 s when Shibu Soren entered mainstream politics.
During the 1990 s, the JMM became highly influential due to the onset of the coalition era in both the centre and the states.

This period also witnessed a strong movement in Eastern Madhya Pradesh for a separate tribal state.

Ultimately, through the MP Reorganisation Act, 2000 and Bihar Reorganisation Act, 2000, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand emerged as the 26 th and 28 th states respectively.

Constitutional provisions and safeguards These include

a) Schedule 5 b) Schedule 6 c) Article 46 d) Creation of Tribal Advisory Councils e) Scheduled Tribes Commission f) Reservation in the Lok Sabha g) Reservation in State Legislative Assemblies in proportion to their population.

h) Reservation in employment and education i) Special powers to Governors of certain states with tribal populations j) Welfare schemes to provide education, health, employment and remove poverty

These provisions and safeguards have yielded tangible benefits in the form of better tribal integration, political stability, better health and education outcomes and political

empowerment. However, more efforts are needed to safeguard tribal interests since they continue to remain some of the most vulnerable sections of the Indian population.

Q. Highlight the issues faced by tribals post-independence. How far have the efforts to alleviate these problems been successful?

Tribals constitute 8% of the total population in India who are a distinct group of relatively isolated people who have maintained their unique culture since ages. However, the modernization accompanied with industrialisation has come as a significant challenge to their way of life.

Issues faced by tribals post-independence

Political backwardness- Although tribal issues have gained significant attention since independence, the issue has itself lacked participation by tribal leaders. They have rarely entered mainstream politics.

Lack of autonomy- despite several attempts such as fifth schedule and sixth schedule etc., tribal regions have faced interference from state as well as parastatal bodies frequently.

Economic interference from outsiders- projects such as mining, agro-forestry etc. led to the infiltration of outsiders. Alongwith state machinery, these have significantly reduced the scope of economic participation by tribals in their traditional mode of life.

Social marginalisation- forcible social integration without accommodating their unique lifestyles has led to the marginalisation of the tribals.

Loss of culture- tribal practices and rituals such as tree worship and an increasing trend of homogenisation have led to loss of their unique culture.

Further complications emerged in the tribal relations with the rise in left-wing extremism and international conspiracy resulting in a violent movement.

The Indian response has been mix-

Tribal Panchsheel

Tribals must develop with their own genius
Their land must be protected
Their language must be protected and promoted
Tribals must be included in their own administration
There should be minimal government in tribal areas.

Counter insurgency operations have been launched by Central as well as state forces.
Economic development- infrastructure development has been one of the biggest means to win the hearts of the tribals.

Despite such attempts, tribals continue to face some problems such as socio-economic backwardness, displacement, political underrepresentation and social marginalisation which have led to lingering social tension vis-à-vis tribals.

Finally, it can be said that introducing Tribal Panchsheel and constitutional safeguards in spirit are needed to be implemented honestly in order to attain the actual goal of national integration.

Land Reforms Issues

Landlessness- more than two-thirds (71%) of Indian farmers were landless. They did not own any land and lived as tenants or bonded labour on the land of others. According to

Hamza Ali, Indian farmers could be categorized into-

Rich farmers- more than 10 acres
Middle farmers- 5-10 acres of land. They depended upon hired labour during the sowing and harvest season.

Poor farmers- 2-5 acres. They depended only upon family labour. In the busy season, they also worked on the fields of others.

Landless peasants or labourers- they worked on the lands of Zamindars and rich peasants and paid rent.

Credit facility- a 1954 RBI survey concluded that only 7% of Indian farmers had access to institutional credit. The others were forced to borrow from exploitative moneylenders.

Technological access- Most Indian farmers used primitive methods of farming. In 1951, only three percent Indian farmers were using iron ploughs. The availability of artificial

irrigation was low (13%) and agriculture was primarily rain-fed. Access to synthetic fertilizers, modern pesticides and high yield variety seeds was virtually non-existent.

Farmers also lacked sufficient supply of cheap electricity. Thus, farming could not be mechanized.

As a result, the rate of agricultural growth was stagnant at roughly 0-0.5% while population was growing at 3% per annum leading to a severe food shortage. Hurdles

Land reforms could not be implemented properly since most of the leaders themselves came from the landowning families.

Additionally, the government functionaries at almost all levels- upper, middle and lower were involved atleast in some capacity with landlordism. For example, the low level

functionaries such as Patwaris were themselves the rent collecting agents of big zamindars.

Another major hurdle was the unavailability of proper land records. In some cases, land records had not been updated for than a century.

The country lacked necessary infrastructure to carry out land consolidation and agricultural modernisation.

The paucity of funds and expertise also slowed down the process of agricultural modernisation and extension of formal credit.

Finally, the legal profession staunchly opposed the regulation of moneylending since the moneylending business opened a major field of litigation and contributed to a major proportion of litigation and constituted a major source of income for lawyers.

Lastly, the constitution makers had made the right to property a fundamental right which would have made land distribution legally impossible.

Efforts

Since land is a state subject, states had to take the lead.
In 1949, the UP State Assembly passed the UP Land Reform Act or the Zamindari Abolition Act which became the model law for other states.

First Constitution amendment Act 1951 removed the Right to Property as a fundamental right and added the ninth schedule which protects social legislations from judicial review

However, beyond this the process of land reform remains low due to a combination of hurdles.

This resulted in the emergence of left-wing extremism especially in southern and eastern India prompting the Congress to resolve to accelerate the process of land reforms at its Nagpur session in 1959.

By 1961, almost all states had passed their own land reform laws including Zamindari abolition, tenancy reform and placing a land ceiling ranging from 3 to 27 acres.

Between 1961 to 1971, the proportion of land owning farmers had increased from 31 to 91% with Bihar topping the list at 99.6%

However, this success was misleading.

In reality, the north Indian states had performed extremely poorly. Grave problems such as benami transactions, eviction of tenants, small landholdings and low productivity derailed the process of land reform.

Caste played a very important role in the abortive process of land reforms.

On the other hand, some states such as West Bengal, Kerala and Kashmir were effective in land distribution but land reforms were accompanied by ideological and communal violence.

Gandhian efforts were also made to carry out land reforms. Acharya Vinoba Bhave launched the Bhoodan movement in the Telangana region in 1951. A parallel Gramdan

movement was launched in Odisha. These movements called upon Zamindars to voluntarily donate a portion of their lands to be distributed among peasants. However, the response was lackluster in both cases.

Marxists accused the Gandhians of trying to sabotage the radical leftist movement which was emerging among peasants as seen by the violence in Kerala and West Bengal.

Critical analysis

While the land reform programmes succeeded in abolition of Zamindari, protection of tenants and made farm credit available to peasants, in North India much of this progress

remained on paper. The added complication of caste divide in the agrarian structure resulted in caste based riots and politics from the 1970 s onwards. The worst affected areas were Eastern UP and Bihar.

While West Bengal, kerala and Kashmir were more successful with respect to land reforms, bloodshed could not be avoided resulting in the growth of Left-wing extremism in areas where land reforms were stalled.

The two most significant manifestations of this were-

Naxalite movement
Bandits of Chambal

Environmentalism Background

In the initial years after independence, there was no specific Environmental policy.

This period witnessed greater stress on economic growth and infrastructure development with little concern for environmental degradation.

There was no single body to oversee environmental protection. The primary environmental issue fell under the ambit of waste disposal, sanitation, public health and

forest regulation. These were handled by different ministries and departments primarily at the state level.

At the same time, a few provisions were introduced to tackle problems such as destruction of forests, unplanned urban growth and the emerging problem of water pollution. These included

the Factories Act, 1948
the River Boards Act, 1956
Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development Act), 1967.

This reflects the lack of any unified effort in developing a policy to tackle pollution from these sources. Instead, efforts were scattered and sporadic.

At the same time, there was growing concern with regards to rising population, its polluting effects, resource depletion and its impact on forests and wildlife.

The first turning point was the Stockholm Conference, 1972 which was followed by a series of environmental protection laws as well as economic planning with a focus on clean and sustainable development.

Efforts to combat biodiversity laws and pollution post-Stockholm conference (1972)

Wildlife Protection Act,1972

Prevent the decline of animal and bid protection
It prohibits the killing of certain species except for scientific and education purpose
It empowers state governments to declare any area to be a wildlife sanctuary or national park.

Water (Prevention of pollution) Act (1974)

It provided for the creation of Central Pollution control Boards and State Pollution Control Boards.

Forest (Conservation) Act (1980)

It aimed at checking deforestation and diversion of forest land for non-forestry purpose.

It also promoted social forestry.

Air (Prevention of pollution) Act, 1981

It empowered the Central and State Pollution Control Boards to monitor and check air pollution.

It also empowered the central and state governments to adopt policies and measures to identify the sources of air pollution and frame policies to check it.

Clearly, these acts were designed to protect the natural environment and improve the quality of life by checking pollution, deforestation and protecting wildlife and the natural environment.

However, there was little focus on the resolution of industrial and environmental disputes. Further, polluting industries and activities were not sufficiently checked.

The next major turning point in the evolution of India's environmental policy came in the form of the Bhopal gas tragedy.

Environmental reforms after the Bhopal gas tragedy

Environment Protection Act, 1986

It was a landmark in India's evolving environment protection framework.
By plugging the loopholes in existing legislations, it centered the focus of the country towards environment protection.

It primarily tackles pollution with stringent penalties for violators.

Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

It provides mandatory insurance cover for the purpose of providing immediate relief to persons affected by accidents involving any hazardous material.

National Environment Tribunals Act, 1995

Civil codes took a long time to dispose all disputes including those of environment.
This act provided for speedy disposal of environmental cases to the national environment tribunal that had four benches (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai).

National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997

It provided for the establishment of the appellate authority to hear appeals with respect to restriction in any areas in which any industries, operations or processes may or may not be carried out subject to the safeguards provided by the environment protection act, 1986.

National Biodiversity Act, 2000

This Act offers assistance to communities involved in the protection of biodiversity around them. It facilitates scientific access to genetic material while protecting the traditional knowledge of biodiversity conservation.

Environmental movements in India post-independence

A large number of environmental movements emerged in India during and after the 1970 s.

Initially they emerged as a local response to local issues but gradually they coalesced into a national movement for environmentalism.

Broadly, the emergence of the Indian environmental movements may be attributed to factors such as

control over natural resources
Misguided developmental policies of the government resulting from centralized top- down planning.

Environmental degradation or destruction causing socio-economic distress.

Rising awareness about the importance of the ecological balance and the environment protection through literature and media. For example, the publication of 'Silent Spring' in 1960 by Rachel Carson.

Major Movements

Bishnoi Movement

Led by Amrita Devi in Rajasthan to prevent poaching of wildlife, deforestation and combat desertification.

More than 363 members of the Bishnoi community sacrificed their lives in conflict against powerful local elements and the government.

The Bishnoi movement represents a unique blend of environmentalism with religious spiritualism.

Chipko Andolan

Led by activists such as Sundar Lal Bahuguna, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Gaura Devi and others in the forested hilly areas of Uttarakhand.

The Chipko Movement gets its name from the tactic used by the activists to prevent the felling of trees, namely hugging the trees.

Women played a leading role in the movement since deforestation affected them directly. This was because women were primarily responsible for gathering firewood and pastoral activities. Both these activities required easy access to healthy forests.

Chipko movement thus emerged as the major step not only towards the democratization of environmentalism but also the growth of feminist influence within environmentalism.

Narmada Bachao Andolan

Pioneered by Medha Patekar, it opposed the Narmada river valley project.
It has emphasized upon the social, environmental and economic risks associated with such projects. It also brings focus on issues such as forced displacement.

It has directly contributed to the introduction of tools such as environmental and social assessments of major projects as well as the incorporation of specific guidelines to resettle and rehabilitate the displaced communities.

Silent Valley Movement

A series of protests took place in the Silent valley to protect the ecology, he dense tropical and temperate forests and against hydro-electricity projects planned for this region.

Appiko Movement

It emerged in the Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka with the following objectives- a) Restoring forests in the denuded areas b) Protecting existing forest cover c) Utilizing forest wealth with consideration for the conservation of natural resources

Like the Chipko movement, it was the grassroots movement of local communities against the degradation of natural forests due to infrastructure development, industrial expansion and commercial exploitation.

Nature of India's environmental movement

These began as localized movements but coalesced into national environmental alliance.
They have been non-violent movements which relied on constitutional methods.
They have strong democratic credentials as most of them are grassroots movements and they believed in the democratic rights of the local communities.

They represent synthesis between modern science and traditional knowledge.
These movements have been able to attract large number of NGOs and groups, both domestic and foreign.

India's environmental movement has remained constructive rather than obstructive when it comes to economic development. They have found creative solutions to solve

the dilemma of growth versus environmentalism by adopting the strategy of sustainable development with the focus on conservation and inclusivity.

Nehru's Foreign Policy

War with Pakistan
Border disputes
Cold war era
Need of foreign aid
To transform India into a world leader
To influence international relations with a view to combat colonialism and racism
To prevent global conflict

Background of Nehru's foreign policy

In 1927, Nehru became Congress' foreign representative. He travelled extensively including to the International Decolonisation Conference (1927), Soviet Union and also to several Asian and African colonies.

He was also fully inspired by socialism as well as to its ideological opposition to colonialism and racism.

He was deeply inspired by Gandhian principles including non-violence and self-rule. Nehru's foreign policy principles

Non-alignment- it stood for political neutrality in the Cold war.

In the era of bloc politics, Nehru advocated the third path distinct from both capitalism and communalism which stood for equal cooperation with both superpowers for economic development.

Panchsheel- He outlined principles on the basis of which international relations especially between neighbours could be conducted.

Mutual non-aggression
Mutual respect of international boundaries and territorial sovereignty
Mutual non-interference in each other's' internal affairs
Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit
Peaceful co-existence.

Decolonisation- Nehru envisioned a world free of colonialism and India as a leader of the newly decolonised countries.

He condemned French aggression in Africa and South East Asia after the Second World War.

He also condemned the joint British and French invasion of Egypt in 1956.
In 1947, he laid the foundations of the Asian Relations Conference at its first summit at Delhi.

The Asian Relations Conference represented the assertion of newly independent countries to determine their own fate free from superpower influence.

At the Bandung Conference in 1955, Nehru floated the creation of the non-aligned movement.

In 1956, first summit of NAM took place in Belgrade.

International peace through dialogue- Nehru was subscriber of the idea that international disputes must be resolved through mutual dialogue.

During the Korean War, he emerged as the negotiator between the two sides.

Internationalism- Nehru was a supporter of international institutions such as UNO, World Bank and IMF.

He unilaterally referred the Kashmir issue to the UN for resolution.
Similarly, the Indus Water Treaty (1960) was finalised between India and Pakistan through the World Bank.

At the same time, Nehru was not a pacifist. While he did not believe in the violent resolution of disputes, he also felt that national defence is the most important objective of foreign policy.

As such, in 1948, he laid the foundations of the Atomic Energy Cooperation and in 1949, he laid the foundation of the National Defence Academy with the purpose of making India a nuclear state and to strengthen the armed forces respectively.

Major Foreign Policy Moves

London Declaration, 1950- India joined the Commonwealth and the British Commonwealth was renamed as the Commonwealth of Nations.

Delhi Pact, 1950- It was signed between Nehru and Liaqat Ali Khan.

It sought to resolve the disputes caused by the refugee crisis

Asian Relations Conference, 1947
Non-Aligned Movement, 1956
Panchsheel Agreement, 1956
India-China war, 1962

Assessment of Nehruvian foreign Policy Pros

Nehru's Foreign policy operated along a predictable path. This instilled confidence among other countries with respect to Nehru.

Nehru's policy of decolonisation anti-apartheid and non-alignment presented India as a natural leader of the third world countries.

The success of humanity's second experiment with internationalism (the UN) was in large part due to Nehru's belief in its effectiveness.

India was able to obtain developmental assistance and cooperation from both superpowers without sacrificing her strategic autonomy.

Nehruvian insistence on strong national defence played a direct role in India's future military success against Pakistan.

Cons

However, one of the biggest weaknesses of Nehruvian internationalism was its idealism as reflected by Indo-China war as well as the internationalisation of the Kashmir issue.

Non-Alignment was seen as defiance of their influence by both superpowers thus their attitude towards India remained cool bordering on hostility.

Nehru's decision to abstain from UN resolution number 48 which named China one of the aggressors during the Korean War was seen by Americans as opportunism. Nehru

had clearly acted to protect neutrality at the cost of the truth. Consequently, Pakistan became a member of SEATO and received American aid and acted against India with impunity.

Communalism Post-independence

When a community (either religious or non-religious) is feeling that its interests (social, economic, political and cultural) are not only distinct from the interests of other

communities but also mutually antagonistic, a feeling of hatred, fear and competition manifests itself. Communalism refers to this feeling.

Background

Communalism is a modern concept with respect to India as different religious communities may have shared an adversarial relationship in the past, assimilative

character of Indian society overcame these differences through a lengthy process of cultural synthesis.

It was during British rule that communalism emerged as a major political trend. This was due to the following factors-

The decadal census from 1881 onwards divided Indians on the basis of religion.
Divide and Rule policy adopted by the British following Revolt of 1857.
Popular democracy based on first past the post system encouraged vote bank politics.

Reservation based on separate electorates to religious minorities.
Parties and groups such as Hindu Mahasabha, Arya Samaj, and the Muslim League regularly engaged in dangerous communal rhetoric.

Mass communalisation during Khilafat movement.
Series of communal riots during 1920 s and 30 s.
Pakistan demand and the partition of India. Post-Independence

Following partition, the government cracked down on right-wing Hindu groups following the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi. As a result, 1950 s remained peaceful.

However, major communal riot at Jabalpur shocked the nation forcing the government to introduce new laws to increase security and clamp down on local leaders.

However, the 1960 s remained disturbed.

1970 s were relatively peaceful with the emergency period being the most peaceful.
1980 s was a turning point for Indian communalism. The Shah Bano case, followed by the decision to open Babri Masjid to Hindu devotees was the greatest contributor to rising communalism.

1990 s witnessed communalism to reach its boiling point with issues such as Rath Yatra, cross-border terrorism, violence against Kashmiri pandits, Babri Masjid demolition and

Bombay serious bomb blasts in 1993.

The government responded by setting up anti-terrorism task forces, introduced preventive detention laws and threatened down on suspicious activity at the local and national levels.

In the new millennium, the atmosphere was poisoned by the Godhra incidence and riots.

Since the 2010 s, communal harmony has been threatened due to issues such as Love Jihad, cow protection, mob-lynching and fake reporting especially on social media.

Conclusion Communalism has thus remained a persistent problem in Indian politic and requires a multi-

pronged response including-

Improving the law and order machinery
Holding the perpetrators to account
Holding the local government functionaries responsible for being unable to stop communal rioting.

The immediate relief of affecting persons.
Organizing Mohalla committees including leaders from all communities, resolution of trivial disputes locally.

Enforcing reasonable restrictions on free speech especially incendiary speech in sensitive areas by political and community leaders.

Responsible and unbiased reporting of communal incidents in the media.
Spreading education and awareness especially among women.