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Paper 1›Medieval India›15th & Early 16th Century — Society & Culture

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Bhaktism

Origin and rise of Bhakti
Spread of Bhakti in North India
Nirguna Bhakti and its social impact
Saguna Bhakti and its manifestation in different parts of India
Historiography of Bhaktism
The role of women Bhaktas and the evolution of Bhaktism as a social liberator
Cultural contribution of Bhaktism

Origin and the rise of Bhakti

Bhaktiisinherentin Indian culture.Atdifferentpointsinhistory,Bhaktitookthe form of a philosophical movement then it became the largest cultural movement in India.

From the viewpoint of time, it covered more than 1000 years.

Likewise, as for its nature, we can say it was an inclusive cultural phenomenon.

For example,itassimilatedwithinitselfbothhigh Brahmaniccultureandlower tribal culture,

popular elements as well as feudal elements,
Brahmanic orthodoxy as well as religious liberalism.
So, it was heterogeneous in character.

Some elements of Bhakti manifested even in ancient texts like Vedas and Upanishads.

But still,asasocial-religiousideology,wefindthefullextentof Bhaktisminthe text, Bhagwat Gita, first.

Pre-Gupta Period: Upto the Gupta period Bhaktism emerged as a philosophical response to Buddhism, however, it largely remained confined to high philosophy and never really affected the lives of the common people.

Gupta Period: Then idol worship and temple cult started during Gupta period as a result of the influence of non-Aryan elements.

There was an expansion of Aryan culture due to the phenomenon of land grants and through the process of cultural integration, a large number of non- Aryan godswere assimilated within the Aryan pantheon preparingthe wayfor future Hinduism.

Post-Gupta Period: Tantricism became the dominant sect in North India and it overpowered Bhaktism for some time.

Furthermore, we should keep one thing in mind that during Gupta and Post- Gupta periods, Bhakti got associated with a socio-political phenomenon that emerged at that time and which was known as feudalism.

Tamil Bhakti: Then in the 6 th and 7 th centuries, Bhakti appeared in South India as a popular movement.

Here the initiative was taken by Alavar and Nayanar saints. According to the tradition, there were 12 Alwar saints and 63 Nayanar saints.

Although these saints came from different social backgrounds, most came from the lower castes. So they opposed varna division.

That's why initially the Bhakti movement in south India did not work simply as a religious movement but also a social movement.

Alavar and Nayanar saints made a demand not simply of religious equality but also of social equality.

Acharyas: But after the 10 th century CE, Brahmanic elements started to penetrate the Tamil Bhakti movement. They were known as Acharyas for example, Nath muni,

Yamunacharya, Ramanujacharya, Vallabhacharya, Madhavacharya etc.

They began promoting Bhakti as a philosophy once again.

Ramanujacharya: Then in the 12 th century CE, under Ramanuja, a compromise formula was reached.

According to this, although in the religious field equality for all was accepted, in the social field, Varna division had to continue.

As a result of thischange, the Bhakti movement was converted from a popular movement into an elitist movement.

Ironically, Bhakti became a strong weapon in the hand of Brahmins, with the support of which they could eliminate Buddhist and Jaina adversaries.

Simultaneously, this period was marked by the rise of new dynasties in South India i.e. Cholas.

This dynasty was in search of legitimacy so they could gain support to Brahmanas and temple cult.

Thus Bhaktiemergedasareligiousstructurebasedonanalliancebetweenmonarchy and Brahmans who were being supported by idol worship and temple cult.

Medieval Bhakti in North India

Afterthe 13th century,Bhaktitravelledto North India.Itissaidthatit was Ramananda who carried the message of Bhaktism from South to North India.

Ramanandaappearedat the endofthe 15th centuryand early 16th century.Hespent his early life in South India then the rest of the life he spent at Banaras.

Althoughhewasafollowerof the Ramanujatradition,hebroughtcertaininnovations.

Forexample,herelaxedthecastebarriersandaccepteddiscipleseven among lower caste Hindus.

That's why he is supposed to be the spiritual inspiration behind the lower caste saints like Kabir, Ravidas, Sena and Dhanna. Nirguna Bhakti

By the 15 th century in North India, Nirguna Bhakti had emerged. The background for Nirguna Bhakti was prepared by the Nathpanthi sect. It had two specialities.

Firstly, although Nathpanthi saints were worshippers of Lord Shiva, they worshipped Lord Shiva in a shapeless form.

Secondly, they were vehemently opposed to the caste system.

In fact, it is through a proper mix between Nathpanth and Bhakti that Nirguna Bhakti came into existence in North India.

Apart from Nathpanth and Bhakti, we can underline the influence of Sufism on Nirguna Bhakti as well.

Possibly the intensity of love for God was inspired by Sufism. Kabirdas became a great exponent of Nirguna Bhakti in North India. His Bhakti had the following features-

Worship of a shapeless God:-

Kabir's Ram was quite different from Tulsi's Ram as Kabir's Ram is not represented in anthropomorphic form.

It was this factor in Kabir which made him opposed to Idol worship.
So unconsciously he fell into the category of a religious reformer.

Opposed to the caste system:-

Kabir inherited a sense of bitterness against the caste division from Nathpanth. Simultaneously there might have been some influence of monotheism of Islam as well.

Kabirdas asserted that if Allah and Ishwar (God) are one and the same then how can the followers of Allah and Ishwar be separated from each other as

Muslims and Hindus. In this way,through propagating religions unity Kabirdas emphasised social unity as well.

In fact, Kabir had a bitter experience of the caste system. He belonged to the weaver caste. This caste was at the lowest ladder of Hindu society.

So in the hope of improvement in their social condition weaver (Julaha) caste embraced Islam but it realised that even within Muslim society it was marginalised.

Sopractically Kabir Dasdevelopedasenseofdisillusionmentin both Hinduism and Islam.

It was one of the reasons why Kabir made an attack on Hindu and Islamic ritualism simultaneously.

Challenged the infallibility of the religious scriptures:

Kabir Das was deprived of education. As he was illiterate he did not get support from scripture or Shastra.

But it became a blessing in disguise for Kabir as Kabir made his personal experience as his guide.

It was a very important reason why Kabir expressed such original ideas in socio- religious fields at that time.

Kabir as a mystical thinker:-

When there is intensity of love, but the object of love is not clear thus originates mysticism.

In the case of Kabir we find that he worshipped God in shapeless form. But he expressed a deep love for God in the manner of a Sufi Saint.

Kabir gave the symbol of a beloved to the Soul and the symbol of lover to Brahma.

Then he tried to express the relationship between Brahma and Soul through the symbol of human relations. It is here mysticism in Kabir originates and brings him near to Sufi Saint as well.

Apart from Kabir, some others were associated with the saint tradition. For example, Ravidas,whowasaleatherworker from Banaras;Dhanna,whowasa Jatpeasantfrom Rajasthan; Sena, a barber and Pipa; all of them belong to lower caste and shared the same world view with Kabirdas.

Guru Nanak and Sikhism

Guru Nanak's Bhakti was also influenced by Nath Panth.

In his speech, there is the use of terms like 'Shabad' (sound) and 'Sunniya' (emptiness). These terms have been taken from Nath Panthi.

In this way, he had ideological proximity to Kabir.

Apart from that, on Sikhism, we can underline the impact of monotheism of Islam as well.

Guru Nanak's Bhakti produced a tangible result in the formation of the Sikh state. It became possible due to certain reasons-

Sikhism was deeply associated with a collective spiritual experience, rather than simply an individual experience as you find in the case of other forms of Nirguna Bhakti.

For example, Guru Nanak created a large group of followers who were known as Sikhs.

Likewise, he started a community kitchen in the form of 'Langar'.
Later, Guru Arjandev, the fifth guru, gave a textual flavour to Sikhism in form of Guru Granth Sahib.

Thenlateranegalitarian Sikhsocietycollidedwiththecoercivefeudal system under Mughal. It developed a sense of mission.

Certainly, such developments paved the way for the rise of an independent Sikh state in the 18 th century.

Contributions of Nirguna Bhakti 1.Itpromotedsocialradicalismthroughanattackonthecaste system.Itrejectedtheexisting pattern of society.

Although Kabirdas, Nanak, etc. were basically spiritual leaders, they unconsciously brought certain reforms within the society itself.

This was due to the responsibility of religious ritualism for many social evils, for example, caste division, idol worship, pilgrimage, etc.

So once these saints attacked religious ritualism, social evils automatically came into their ambit.

It is due to this fact, Kabir is characterised as the Martin Luther of the 15 th century.

Nirguna Bhakti rejected asceticicism and preferred to remain associated with productive

activities.

Kabir even after being a saint continued his weaving activity.
So in one sense, Nirguna Bhakti encouraged production.

Apart from this, Nirguna Bhakti promoted production by breaking the relationship

between craft and caste which was a prevailing norm in India at that time.

In other words, the change of craft created the situation of Varna Samkara that was decried in society at that time.

But Nirguna saints encouraged the people to adopt new crafts, thus weakening the caste system.

Nirguna Bhakti made a major contribution to the cultural field as well.

These saints, not simply reflected the feelings of the common people but also the language of the common people.

For example, Kabir used the language of the common people, Hindavi, while Punjabi was adopted by Nanak. So local dialects were promoted. Kabir has declared that

Sanskrit was just a well's water while Hindavi (perverted form of Hindi) was a stream.

Furthermore, Nirguna Bhakti gave support to local literature as well.

Nanak established Punjabi literature.
Likewise, Kabir's Sakhi, Ramnia and other sorts of poems contributed to Hindi literature.

Bijak and Granthawali of Kabir are supposed to be based on his sermons.

Even in the development of music, Nirguna Bhakti made its contribution.

Guru Nanak introduced devotional songs in Sikhism and also the instruments like Rabab.

Even today devotional songs are part of the Gurudwara's life.

Limitations

But in spite of the positive contribution of Nirguna Saints, we shouldn't overestimate it.

Although it is true that Nirguna Bhakti made an attack on religious rituals and social tradition, they couldn't bring any radical change in existing religious or social structure in the true sense.

Essentially, they were spiritual leaders so, even their reform program was mainly guided by their personal spiritual realisation, not by any rational ideology.

That's why they failed to give any alternative system and their protest remained simply a timely reaction.

It is sometimes compared with the Protestant movement of Europe.

In Europe,the Protestantmovementsuccessfullybrokethepillaroffeudalism and paved the way for the rise of capitalism. However, Nirguna Bhakti could not overpower the prevailing feudalism of the time.

Vaishnava Bhaktism

It was different from Nirguna Bhakti. Nirguna Bhakti believed that God didn't take incarnation nor did he come to earth to play his Lila.

On the other hand, Saguna Bhakti believed in the concept of incarnation and reincarnation.

Two important exponents of Vaishnava Bhakti in North India were Ramananda and Vallabhacharya.

Ramananda became an inspiration for both the Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti in North India.

Ramananda brought three important changes with respect to the Bhaktism of South India.

In place of Lord Vishnu and Shiva, he introduced the Rama cult in North India.
Secondly, in place of Sanskrit he introduced local dialects in order to spread his message to the common people.

Above all, he created a band of followers from the lower castes. In this way, the difference is clearly visible with prevailing Brahmanic orthodoxy.

Similarly, Vallabhacharya became an ideological inspiration behind Krishna Bhakti in North India.

Vallabhacharya was a Telugu Brahmin. He also appeared at the end of 15 th and early 16 th century. He was born in Banaras and remained active in North India.

He laid the foundation of Ashtachap which comprises 8 important Krishna Bhaktas and who were ardent followers of Vallabhacharya.

Vallabhacharya influenced mainly Gujarat and later after the appearance of Surdas, this movement would be an influential movement in North India in the 17 th century.

The difference in the perception of Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti

Nirguna Bhaktiemphasisedontheworshipof Godinashapelessform while Suguna

Bhakti believed in individual Gods.

Nirguna Bhakti was having a radical social outlook as it rejected caste division while

Saguna Bhaktimadeacompromisewiththevarnasystemandacceptedcastedivision.

The manifestation of Vaishnava Bhakti in different regions of India

Vaishnava Bhakti shouldn't be taken as a monolithic movement rather it was heterogeneous in nature.

In different regions, its manifestation was slightly different and there it reflected the influence of some local elements as well.

North India In North India as well as in Western India, Vaishnava Bhakti manifested itself in two different branches, i.e. Rama Bhakti and Krishna bhakti. Both became popular movements in these regions.

Rama Bhakti

Tulsidas appeared to be a great exponent of Rama bhakti. It was he who carried Ram Katha to every Hindu household.

He composed the famous text 'Ramcharitmanas' in Awadhi language which was associated with the birthplace of Ram. If today the story of Rama has survived, it isn't in Valmiki's Ramayana, but it is in the language of Tulsidas.

Another important Ram Bhakta was Nabhadas. He composed a famous text i.e. 'Bhaktamal' in which 200 Bhaktas are mentioned.

Krishna Bhakti

Surdas emerged to be a great exponent of Krishna bhakti and he popularised his Bhakti among common masses.

Heused Braj Bhasha,alocaldialect,andcomposedhisfamoustext,'Sur Sagar' in this language.

The popular story of Lord Krishna, Radha, the Gopis, etc. possibly
caught popular imagination much deeper than even Rama Bhakti.
Krishna Bhaktiwaspromotedby Narsingh Mehtain Gujaratand Mira Baiin Rajasthan. Maharashtra Dharma

Maharashtra Dharma reflected assimilation between Vaishnavism and Nathpanthi ideology.

The centre of Maharashtra Dharma was Pandharpur and the God around whose Maharashtra Dharma revolves was Vithoba, a local God. The followers of Vithoba formed a new sect that was the Varkari sect.

Namdeva was supposed to be a bridge between Maharashtra Dharma and Bhakti movement in North India.

One important exponents of Maharashtra Dharma was Gyandeva. He composed a commentaryon Bhagavad Gitainthe Marathilanguage knownas 'Gyaneshwari Gita'.

Some other important saints associated with this sect were Namdeva, Eknath, Tukaram.

Maharashtra Dharmawasdifferentfrom other Vaishnavasectsasit advocatedfor the eradication of social differences between high and low born in society.

In this way, a common Maratha identity to the people was given.

So unconsciously Maratha saints laid the foundation of the future Maratha state as they encouraged the process of human capital formation for the promotion of a common political cause.

In the 17 th century, Saint Ramdas Samartha emerged.

He was Shivaji's teacher as well.
He laid the foundation of the Dharkari sect.
The emphasis of this sect was the assimilation between spiritual and mundane life.

So gradually Maharashtra Dharma evolved from a Shahishnu Dharma (a tolerant religion)toa Jayishnu Dharma (Asectforconquest).Thuswasprepared abasisforthe future Maratha state.

Bhaktism in Eastern India In Eastern India Bhaktism was influenced by Siddha and Nath saints.

Early exponents of Bhakti ideas in Bengal were Jayadeva and Vidyapati.

Jayadeva composed a famous text 'Geet Govinda' in Sanskrit.

This text focused on the relationship between Radha and Krishna and
presented this relationship in a very erotic manner.

Vidyapati carried Bhakti tradition and composed his text in the Maithili language.

Likewise, one of the earliest Bhakti saints was Chandidas in Bengal.

But the most important was Chaitanya.

He popularised Krishna Bhakti in Bengal and created such a deep impact on the mind of the people that he was presented as the reincarnation of Lord Krishna.

It was Chaitanya who introduced Kirtana (devotional song). So he brought Bhakti to the moment of emotional ecstasy.

In Assam, Sankardeva was also a Bhakti saint.

In Assam Bhakti, Radha didn't play a significant role.
Likewise, in place of young Krishna, Bala Krishna (Childhood) became a major theme of Bhaktism. Contribution of Saguna Bhakti :-

Although it is true, Saguna Bhakti made a compromise with the Varna system but at least

they tried to soften the rigour of the Varna system.

Even in Saguna Bhakti, we can underline the element of protest against Brahmanic

orthodoxy and elite norms. For example, Maharashtra Dharma reflected popular consciousness. Likewise, in Krishna Bhakti, the existing social norms have been challenged.

In the cultural field, Vaishnava Bhakti made a larger contribution. In one sense, Bhaktism

became a majortheme in contemporary literature, architecture, music,dance, painting, etc.

Support for local dialects like Hindi, Awadhi, Braj Bhasha, Bengali, Marathi, etc.
Saguna Bhakti encouraged temple cult so the rare example of temple architecture is associated with Saguna Bhakti.

Sankritana system introduced by Chaitanya, devotional songs of Mira, Dhrupada singing of Swami Haridas, made a rare contribution to Indian music. In one sense, it

was Bhaktism which prepared the way for the development of Hindustani music in India.

Limitations of Saguna Bhakti

Through accepting caste division and temple cult, Saguna Bhakti accepted the

Brahmanic world view and it strengthened the position of Brahmanism in socio

religious life of India.

In one sense, the resurgence of Saguna Bhakti overpowered Nirguna Bhakti in North India where Nirguna Bhakti had so far continued to promote some sort of social radicalisation.

Women Bhaktas and a note of protest

Bhaktism is supposed to be a movement that advocated for the creation of an egalitarian society but on observing sincerely we find that while some saints raised the caste issue and opposed the caste system but simultaneously they neglected the issue of women's exploitation.

But in the course of the Bhakti movement, some women Bhaktas emerged.

David Kingsley asserts that for them it became difficult to reconcile their love for the lord and perform their worldly duties.

So in one sense, the rise of women Bhaktas symbolises a protest against the drudgery of domestic life.

We come to know about some important women Bhakta such as Lalded/Laleshwari of Kashmir.

She was a dedicated Shaivite.
She opposed all sorts of social taboos and religious ritualism.
Ideologically she came close to the rishi sect (a Sufi sect) in Kashmir. Nuruddin Rishi was highly influenced by the spiritual perfection of Lalded.

On the one hand, Lalded became a symbol of protest against the male dominance of society; on the other in association with the Rishi sect and its exponent Nuruddin, she also became a symbol of Hindu-Muslim amity.

As in Rajasthan, Mirabai was associated with the same symbol of social protest.

Shelostherhusbandatayoungagethenalsolostherfather-in-law,Maharana Sanga, as well after the battle of Khanwa.

Along with a sense of loneliness, she also felt a sense of being victimised as a result of domestic violence.

It was from the earlier phase she was indulging in Krishna Bhakti but later she became a complete Bhakti saint. She was a symbol of social rebellion. This phenomenon can be ascertained even on the basis that even in earlier phases shedidn'tenjoyrespect among Rajasthaniwomenwhotookherasthebreaker of social norms.

Mahadevi Akka was a Bhakti saint from the Karnataka region.

She also became a symbol of women's protest against male dominance in society. In this way, women Bhakta gave a new dimension to the Bhakti movement.

Historiography of the Bhakti Movement Bhakti proved to be the largest cultural movement in India. Almost every part of India was touched by it and it made its presence felt for a long time i.e. 1000 years. So it is very natural that there should be some controversy among scholars in specifying its nature.

Earlier R.G. Bhandarkar, while making a study of Bhaktism, tried to find out its indigenous roots.

In other words, he linked Bhaktism to the earlier religious tradition of India.

R.C. Zaehner tried to link it to the influence of Islam.
Likewise, some other scholars, such as Yusuf Hussain, divided Bhaktism into two phases -

1. Starting from the 4 th - 5 th century to the 12 th century, when Bhaktism was an individual perception.

2. Then, from the 13 th century to the 16 th century, when Bhaktism became a religious creed after an interaction with Islam.

Some scholars tried to prove that bhakti was an outcome of the desperation of the lower castes. For them, it was an expression of social protest.

They were caught between Devil and Deep Blue Sea.
Ontheonehand,theywereexploitedbyhigher-caste Hindusandonthe other, they were unable to link themselves to the cruel world view given by the Turkish ruling class.

So they moved towards Bhaktism for emotional support.

Other scholars like Irfan Habib interpret Bhakti in relation to craft and caste.

In fact, he emphasised the point that Nirguna saints promoted new crafts through delinking relations between craft and castes.

Another interpretation about this movement is that it was a reaction of caste-ridden Hindu society against the challenge of Islam.

Conclusion Considering different views about the nature of the Bhakti movement we come to the point that it wasn't uniform in nature rather it was polyphonic in nature.

In fact, it encompassed within itself varied and sometimes even mutually contradictory elements.

We can very well underline its multifaceted nature when we come to know that on the one hand, it represented elite elements on the other popular elements.

Likewise, it also symbolises the assimilation between Brahmanic orthodoxy and popular revolt.

Apart from that, at some places it appeared to be a bit insensitive to women but at other places, it represented women's protest also in the form of devotion of Lalded and Mirabai.

Furthermore, Bhaktism on the one hand strengthened the position and power of the ruling class, on the other hand, it represented the revolt of regional elements against the centralised power in the form of Maratha and Sikh movement.

So, while making the study of Bhakti, we need to be cautious about generalisations.

Sufism

The term 'Sufism' came into use for the first time in the 19 th century. Earlier, it was known as 'Tasawwuf'.

Sufism originated from the term Safa or Suffa, which means sacred. Safa also means a coarse blanket made of wool. It also symbolises a rejection of luxurious life.

So far as the term 'suffa' is concerned it symbolized a religious place outside of the mosque.Onthissuffa,saintssatandperformedmeditation.Theywereknownas Sufi.

Sufism emerged in the Islamic world in the 10 th century, when on the one hand there wasthe decline of the Islamic empire, and on theother hand there wasthe rise of the Turkish monarchy.

This period was marked by a transition of values in the Islamic world.

It was a time when power, wealth and influence had completely overshadowed the original values of egalitarianism, love and rule by the consent of the governed.

The new generation of Muslim youth was deeply attracted to a luxurious life.
So, Sufism represented a spiritual reaction against this social decadence.

The Quran itself, provides the basis to Sufi ideas. In fact, the Quran had two different types of interpretations.

First was the Shariyat, presented as the orthodox interpretation;
At the same time the other interpretation was the Tariqat. It gives a liberal interpretation of the Quran. So, it was Tariqat which prepared the basis for mystical ideas of Sufism.

Initially, Sufism was not accepted in the Islamic world as there were two important differences between orthodox Islam and Sufism.

Firstly, according to orthodox Islam, the relationship between Allah and the common man is just like a master and slave, while Sufismbelieved in monistic ideas and talked about unity and equality of god and soul.

Likewise, orthodox Islam and ulemas gave primacy to faith while Sufism believed in the tradition of mutazil (reasoning).

It is on the issues mentioned above that tension continued between the two.

Eg. In 10 th century CE, a Sufi saint Mansur-bin-Hallaz declared himself to be Anhalq (unity of god and soul). He was awarded the death sentence.

Later in the 12 th century a saint Al-Gazzali made Sufism acceptable in Islamic world by bringing an important change in its ideas.

Hedeclaredthat Allahandhismerits can'tberealizedonlythroughreasoning but also through faith.

Although it was an attack on the tradition of Mutazil and ultimately proved costly to the Islamic world, but during this period, the conflict between orthodox Islam and Sufism ceased for time being.

Sufismissupposedto have originated in Iran,then spread to otherpartsof the world.
Right from the time of Turkish conquest of Punjab under Ghazani, Sufi saints started to travel towards India.

The first Sufi saint who came to India was Sheikh Al-Hujwiri or Data Ganj Baksh. He came to India during the period of Mahmud Gazani. He composed 'Kashf-ul-Mahjoob', a famous text.

Following the invasion of Ghori, Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti moved to India and built his Khanqah at Ajmer. After his death his Khanqah became a Dargah and a pilgrimage centre. Several other scholars and Pirs rushed towards India due to the Mongol Menace.

One of Chisti's disciples was Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar. He established his Khanqah at Ajodhan in Punjab. He became a famous saint and by his period the Chisti sect became fully established in India.

Later there appeared two important Chisti saints, Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Dehlavi.

Nizamuddin created a wide band of followers. He came in touch even with Hindu Yogis and appropriated the Yoga method. Yogis of his age referred to him as a Siddha (perfect Yogi).

Why did the Chisti sect gain in popularity in comparison to others?

The Chistis maintained relations with the common people but avoided contact with the ruling class.

Chisti saints adopted local languages like Awadhi, Punjabi, Urdu and Deccani and expressed their spiritual experience through popular stories from Hindu houses.

Sufi saints came in touch with lower strata of the society e.g. Nizamddin Auliya contacted Nathpanti Yogis.

Other Sufi Sects

Another important Sufi sect was the Suhrawardi sect. Its founder was Bahauddin Zakariya.

Apart from the Suhrawardi sect there were some other sub-sects as well e.g. Sattari, Firdausi, Naqshbandi, Qadiri etc.

According to Abul Fazal, there were a total 14 Sufi sub-sects which worked in India.

Sufi Ideology

The objective of Sufismwas to make Ruh (Soul)free from earthlybonds. In the course ofitsjourneyto God,Ruhhastocross 7 valleysorinspiritualterms,sevenlevels.Then the soul would come to manifest god.

Under Sufism some important concepts are Wahadat-ul Wajood (Unity of Being),

Wisal-i- Yaar (sense of loss due to separation from the beloved), Pir/ Haq (teacher/ highest reality),Murid (disciple),Dayra(spiritualterritory),Wali (spiritualsuccessor of Pir) and Fanah (self-annihilation).

Other articles of faith include Dargah/ Mazar (tomb of a Sufi Saint), Ziyarat (Pilgrimage), Futuh (unsolicited gift), Urs (death anniversary of a Sufi saint), Qawwali

(devotional songs), Raksh (dance), Sama (musical gathering) and Hala (state of ecstasy).

Contribution of Sufism:-

It was Sufism which provided a social basis to Islam in India.

The people in India were having bad memory for invasions from Muslim army.
So, it was Sufism that gave an ointment to the wound of Indians. So in one sense it was Sufism due to which Muslim rule in India became acceptable.

Sufi saints even worked as a critic of government policy. In this way they worked as a pressure-group.

Elite Muslim youth was much attracted to the luxuries of life. So Sufi saints through criticising luxurious life infused some moral values in them.

Sufism also contributed to the economic field.

As Sufi saints settled in interior regions or forests and built a Khanqah.
So very soon devotees started going there, the forest was cleared and agriculture developed there.

Moreover, these places developed as the Kasba or town in course of time.

Likewise, Sufism encouraged trade and commerce as well.

Infact, Sufi Khanqah became a meeting place for merchants.
Furthermore, through donations, vast wealth was accumulated in a Sufi khanqah and the khanqah started to invest capital in merchants' business.

In the cultural field, Sufism made a great contribution.

It promoted Indian languages like Awadhi and Panjabi.
By telling stories from the houses of Hindus, it promoted the composite culture of India.

It made a great contribution to music i.e. Gazal and Kawwali are the most important forms of music developed by Sufism.

Md. Gauss was the teacher of Tansen.
Above all, Sufi saints tried to mitigate the cruel behaviors of orthodox Islam on Hindus.

Eg. For orthodox Muslims, the term 'Kafir' meant non- believer but Sufi saints changed its meaning. For them it means beloved.

Vijayanagara Empire

Background

In c. 1334 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq marched to suppress a rebellion in Malabar. But, plague struck his camp. Rumours spread that the Sultan had perished along with thousands of others.

Immediately, all the southern units of the Empire viz. Malabar, Telangana, Kampil etc. revolted. At this point, Tughlaq decided to move back to Delhi.

Some of the old kingdoms survived and some emerged after the collapse of Tughlaq rule over the South, viz. Hoysalas of Mysore, Valema rulers of Warangal, Reddis of

Telangana and Sultan of Madurai etc.

All these powers fought and aligned with each other as it suited them. The stage was set for the rise of two formidable powers in Peninsular India- Vijayanagara Empire and Bahmani Kingdom.

There is a consensus that Harihar and Bukka laid the foundation of Vijayanagara Empire in c. 1336 CE. However, their origin story has some variations.

A popular opinion is that they had served under the state of Warangal. When it fell to the Tughlaqs, they moved to Kampil.

They were captured, converted and sent to Delhi when Kampil fell, too.
However, MBT sent them back to consolidate the Sultanate control over Kampil.

Here, they deepened their roots and unfurled the banner of revolt when the suitable opportunity presented itself.

Their association with Musunuri Kapaya Nayak and a Hindu monk Vidyaranya (who allegedly brought them back into the fold of Hinduism) and some early policies of this upstart kingdom gave this independence project a tinge of Hindu revivalism.

But, we can clearly see that both, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdoms, were the result of regional assertion against imperial subjugation.

Political History of Vijayanagara Empire Sangama Dynasty

Harihar of Sangama dynasty was crowned in c. 1336 CE. He was followed by his brother Bukka I in c. 1356 CE.

A new capital Vijayanagara was set up ostensibly on the advice of Vidyaranya during this period.

The struggle for Raichur doab started as early as c. 1356 CE when Raichur fell to the Bahamanis.

Thewarfarebetweentwosideswasfrequentwhichhaditsrootsinthe ancient history of this geographical area.

During this period, first the Hoysala kingdom and later the Madurai Sultanate (till c. 1377 CE) were incorporated into the Empire.

Having reached peak expansion in the South, Vijayanagara embarked on the expansion in the West and North-East under Harihar II.

He snatched Belgaum and Goa from Bahamanis.
He also sent an expedition to northern Sri Lanka.

The struggle for the Doab area renewed under Deva Raya I.

But, he lost to the Bahamani Sultan, Firuz Shah Bahamani (c. 1397-1422 CE). He had to cede some territory in the doab, pay war indemnity and marry a daughter to Firuz Shah.

Later, Deva Raya aligned with Warangal to split the Reddi Kingdom between the two. This brought the Warangal out of the alliance with Bahamani Kingdom. Consequently, Deva Raya I inflicted a shattering defeat on the Firuz Shah Bahaman and annexed almost the entire Doab.

Also, Deva Raya I dug a canal to meet the drinking water needs of his capital. This canal and one other on Haridra River, were used for irrigation purposes also.

Deva Raya II inducted 2000 Muslim archers in his army and gave them Jagirs.

Accordingto Ferishta, this was in addition to the 10000 Muslims already in the service of Vijayanagara army.

According to Nuniz, the kings of Sri Lanka, Quilon, Pegu, Tennasserim (Burma) and Malaya paid tribute to Deva Raya 2 nd.

Sri Lanka was invaded a number of times.

But, it is doubtful whether Vijayanagara was powerful enough in the Indian Ocean to extract tribute from Malaya and Burma.

This possibly means that these states wanted to maintain friendly relations with the Vijayanagara Empire and sent lavish gifts.

Thedeath of Deva Raya II wasfollowedbycivil war.Thegeographicalauthorityofhis successors shrank considerably as many feudatories assumed independence.

Saluva Dynasty

The last ruler of the Sangama dynasty was overthrown by the Saluva Narsimha in c. 1485, laying the foundation of the Saluva dynasty. Narasimha was originally the governor of Chandragiri.

The Saluva kings restored order in the Empire. After them, came the Tuluva dynasty in c. 1505 CE.

Tuluva Dynasty Krishna Deva Raya

Krishna Deva Raya (c.1509-1530),the greatest of Vijayanagara Kings,belongedto this dynasty.Hegainedallaroundvictories,patronisedart&culture andbrought military and administrative reforms.

He had to deal with internal problems and external problems, viz. the Deccani state, Orissa, Portuguese etc.

By this point, Portuguese had started to harass the small coastal feudatory states of Vijayanagara into making concessions.

Krishna Deva Raya defeated both Orissa state and Bijapur separately. He ousted them both from the Raichur doab.

However, unlike Cholas, he did not build a strong navy and largely ignored the Portuguese threat to the trade of Peninsular India.

The Portuguese possibly gave him a monopoly over the supply of horses.
Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller, has given a very positive account of his personality.

Decline of the Vijayanagar Empire

Some chaos followed his rule. He was succeeded by Achyuta Rai and Sadasiva Raya, consecutively.

Rama Raya, the prime minister of Sadasiva Raya, played the Deccan states against each other.

He concluded a pact with the Portuguese to deny horses to the Bijapur state.
He attacked Bijapur in alliance with Golconda and Ahmednagar in c. 1543.
Then, he sacked Ahmednagar in alliance with Bijapur.
But, he humiliated his allies who in turn patched up their differences.
Four of them united and defeated the Vijayanagara Kingdom in the battle of Talikota, c. 1565 CE.

Hampi, the Vijayanagara capital, was sacked. But, the kingdom lingered on for almost 100 years more while shrinking rapidly. Aravidu Dynasty

Rama Raya's brother, Tirumal Raya, and the King Sadasiva fled to Penugonda.

Gradually, Tirumal Raya retook some parts of the erstwhile empire and established order. Tirumala Raya led the foundation of the Aravidu dynasty in

1570 CE.
One of his successors, Venkat II shifted the capital to Chandragiri. He unsuccessfully tried to stem the rot and prevent further disintegration.

Gradually, the subordinate Nayaks of Mysore, Tanjore, Madurai and Bednur etc.becameindependentduring the 17th centuryand the Vijayanagara Empire faded into insignificance.

Much of its territory was absorbed by Golconda and Bijapur.

Administration

Due to constant warfare, the military aspect of the kingdom was emphasised and it shaped the politico-administrative structure of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Though the institutions of Vijayanagara administration evolved locally, they had imprints of North India.

King

The King, called Raya, was an autocratic head of state, who gained legitimacy on account of his public works.

Kingship was hereditary, though revolts and coups were common.
The king was supposed to rule according to the Dharmashastras and local traditions.

A king was supposed to look after the interest of people.
Inhisworkonpolity,Krishna Deva Rayaenjoinsthata Kingshouldprotectgood and punish evil as far as possible.

Nothing should escape his due justice and he should tax his subjects moderately.

The King was assisted by a council of ministers and high ranking officials.

There was another council which consisted of provincial governors, Nayakas, Nigam representatives and other men of influence.

But, the King was not bound by their advice.
Princes could be enrolled into administration so as to gather experience.

Provincial Administration

Provincial administration had geographical and historical variations.
In the peripheral areas like the Tamil country and coastal areas, local chiefs were allowed to rule.

However,theroyaladministrationmaintainedawatchoverthemandtheyhad to pay regular tributes to the emperor.

The Kingdom was divided into Rajyas/Mandalam, headed by the Pradhans. Their number must have varied with the expansion and contraction of the empire.

Earlier, mostly the members of the royal family were Pradhans, but later, these posts went more to the military aristocrats. They were quite autonomous.

They could issue coins in their own name.
They could maintain their own militia.
They were authorised to levy new and abolish old taxes.
These governors had to send a fixed amount of revenue to the centre.

Kollam/ Valnadus were equivalent to the districts.
These were divided into Nadus, which in turn were subdivided into a group of villages known as 'Melagrama' or 'Sthala'.

'Ur' (village) was the smallest unit.
The concept of Rajyas, as an administrative and revenue unit, vanished by the time Nayaka system became entrenched under the rule of Krishna Dev Raya.

Nayankara System

Constant warfare on all its sides made the Vijayanagara state militaristic and feudal. The Nayakara system should be evaluated in this context.

It was an administrative innovation of the Vijayanagara state.

According to some historians, Nayaks were originally military officers. Though, some believe that these were the Zamindars.

Eventually, Nayaks turned into a strong military-aristocratic class, which was difficult to subjugate at times.

Nuniz and Paes have left a detailed account of this system.

The state used to allot 'Amaram' land to the Nayaks.

In turn, they had to administer their area, pay a certain amount of revenue to thestateandmaintainacertainnumberof troops- elephants,cavalry,infantry etc.

The Nayaks were different from a typical provincial governor, in that they were not transferable. They were more like feudal lords.

They were more autonomous.
The office of a Nayak was hereditary.

The big Nayaks were called 'Amarnayakas' and smaller Nayaks were called 'Palaigar'.
Amarnayakas were supposed to maintain two representatives - military and political

in the royal court. Control

Theoretically, the state could take back their land. But, this was rare in practice.
The Vijayanagara state maintained a monopoly over the distribution of horses, so as to control these Nayaks.

Later, an official named 'Mahamandaleshwara' was appointed to monitor their movement during the reign of Achyuta Raya.

However, all these measures were not sufficient. Nayakas always remained a challenging centrifugal force for the Kings of Vijayanagara.

Ayagar System

The local self-government institution of the Chola period had declined up to this time.

The responsibilities of village committees were taken over by a group of 12 officials.

They were paid in land grants.
Their post was hereditary and it could be bought and sold.

This whole system was called the Ayagar system.

Revenue Administration

The main sources of the royal income were the revenue from crown land (Bhandarvada), tributes from the Nayaks, revenue from provincial governors and tolls on goods etc.

Other than that, houses, factories, occupations and herds etc. were taxed.
Even marriages were taxed.
Krishna Deva Raya had decreed that the 1/4 th of the revenue had to be spent on the court, 1/2 nd on the army and the 1/4 would go to the treasury.

Sometimes, a criticism is that the Vijayanagara state levied too many taxes.

But, given the all-around prosperity reflected in the sources, it is natural that the state would seek a part of it.

Also, the number of taxes may be more but their rates were lower. And, the state was adequately focused on public welfare. Q: Was the foundation of Vijayanagara Empire a result of Hindu resistance?

Answer

Vijayanagara Empire was the product of a cultural reaction to the Delhi Sultanate.

Harihar and Bukka took the help of Hindu revivalist movement of Kapaya Nayaka to complete their independence project.

They were also associated with a Hindu monk Vidyaranya.
During the early stages, Bukka I appealed to the Hindu scholars and artists from all around to come to the Vijayanagara Empire so as to give a Hindu identity to this state.

Often, the violence between Bahamanis and Vijayanagara took a bloody religious turn.

But, the claim of Hindu revival is rhetorical and not substantive.

There were no separate policies for the Hindu and Muslim subjects of the empire.

Mosques flourished during this period.
A large number of Muslim soldiers were enrolled into the Vijayanagara army.
Muslim merchants were quite active in this kingdom and the Arab merchants dominated the overseas trade.

While applying the Rajamandala principle, secular considerations alone prevailed. Vijayanagar's earliest enemies were the Hoysalas, who were great patrons of Hindu temples.

When Gajapatis of Orissa occupied parts of the Vijayanagara kingdom, they aligned with the Bahamani kingdom to oust them.

Hindu Warangal was aligned with Bahamanis against Vijayanagara for a very long time.

Vijayanagara architecture borrowed freely from the Indo-Islamic architectural tradition.

Abovefactsareenoughtoconvinceusthat the Vijayanagara Empirewasageo political entity with a separate cultural identity. It was not a Hindu revivalist state. It was a reaction to the exploitative intrusion of Delhi Sultanate into the region.

Nature of the Vijayanagara state

The nationalist historiography led by Nilkantha Shashtri, which emphasised centralisation remained unchallenged for a long time.

Later, Burton Stein, rather unconvincingly, tried to apply the 'Segmentary State Model' to the Vijayanagara Empire.

Here,hetriedtoseparatetheritualheadofthestatefromtheactualsovereign authority of an area.

He opined that there were many segments of power which were disjointed from each other.

The King did not control the far off region with the help of bureaucracy and army, rather with the help of religion and rituals.

An example was cited that the annual nine day Dussehra festival in the Vijayanagaracapitalwasnotpresided overbythe Brahminpriestsbut the King himself performed the rituals.

TV Mahalingam calls it a feudal state and compares it with European feudalism.

European feudalism chained the entire society together in the link of sub- infeudation by smaller and smaller land tenures and fealty to the immediate superior lord.

Whereas, the Nayakara system only bonded Nayaks with the King.
King gave them revenue assignments in return for certain responsibilities.
Though these Nayaks could lease out their land to smaller Nayaks,which looks like sub-infeudation, the concept of fealty by the small land holders and cultivators to the Nayaks is absent in the Nayakara system.

A closer readingofthe accountsofforeigntravellersand the Vijayanagara inscriptions by Karashima and Subbayaralu tells us that the Vijayanagara state was essentially feudal.

Karashima says that the strength of Vijayanagara state's control over the Nayaks bringsitsfeudalism closer to the 'Tokugawa feudalism' of Japan,more than the European feudalism

Herman Kulke calls it 'military feudalism'.
Burton Stein himself modified his views in his book, 'Vijayanagara', in 1989 CE. He said that the Vijayanagara administration was based on the patrimonial bureaucracy model.

We can conclude from the above discussion that the Vijayanagara state was not centralised but it was a feudal state due to the presence of the Nayak class.

Causes for the disintegration of Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagara was created as well as destroyed by the same set of factors.

It was surrounded by enemies. So, it could never reorient from being a military state to becoming a development oriented state.

Its essential character was feudal under the overall 'Nayakara-Palaigar- Ayagara' set up.

These military aristocrats were a headache for all the rulers and they easily broke into civil wars when the centre became weak.

Their deep rooted vested interests prevented the evolution of long lasting politico-administrative institutions that could embed the name of Vijayanagara kings into the popular mind for centuries.

The military-feudal state consumed all the surplus.

R.S.Sharmasaysthat Vijayanagarastateshowednoenthusiasmformodernityunlike their contemporary European rulers, e.g. Henry, the navigator, of Portugal.

Barring its religious tolerance, its essential character was still medieval.

According to C. V. Vaidya, it was not possible to establish an eternal state as the state failed to set up robust mercantile processes.

Mercantilism was the order of the day in the world during this period.
The policy to allow the Portuguese to entrench themselves on the western coast, reduced its reputation as well as profits from overseas trade.

Duetoitsintensefocusonpatronisingart,literatureandarchitecture,thestatespent a lot of wealth on these narrow groups instead of commissioning durable public welfare works.

Nuniz says that the peasants ended up giving as much as 80% of their production to different agencies.

As long as Vijayanagara could keep its enemies from uniting, it sustained. But, it all changed in the battle of Talikota which ended the glory of Vijayanagara.

However, the state lingered for the next hundred years or so.
The capital was first moved to Penugonda by Tirumal of the Aravidu dynasty. He regained some portions of the erstwhile state back and established law & order.

Venkat IIwasthelastrulerwhotriedtorevivetheempirefromhisnewcapital, Chandragiri.

However, during the 2 nd half of the 17 th century, regional chiefs asserted themselves and much of the remaining territory was absorbed by Golconda and Bijapur.

Foreign Travellers During the reign of Devraya I, NICCOLO CONTI (Italian traveller) visited Vijayanagara.

Hehasgivenadetailedaccountofthecityof Vijayanagar,whichaccordingtohim,was

“as large and as beautiful as Rome".”

He has also commented on the prevalence of Sati. The Persian traveller ABDURR RAZZAQ visited India during the reign of Dev Raya II. He first visited the Zamorin of Calicut and then went to the Vijaygnara empire.

He was a historian and scholar from Herat, sent to Vijayanagar as an ambassador of the ruler of Khurasan, Shah Rukh Mirza, to the court of Deva Raya II.

He has described the time period of Deva Raya II in his travelogue, 'Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain'.

He specially describes the wealth and splendour of the capital. He vouches that Vijayanagar's market was ten times the size of Herat's market.

He says Vijayanagar was the largest and the most well provisioned city in the world.

Accordingtohim,tradersofpreciousmetalsandjewelsflockeditsstreets and bazaars, and the market sold every commodity imaginable.

He mentions that the Vijayanagara treasury was filled with molten gold nuggets.

According to him, Vijayanagara had seven fortification walls within which there were provisions of all year water supply and agriculture fields.

He mentions that the Sati system prevailed in Vijayanagara.
According to him, state derived taxation income from prostitution and brothels.
He pegs the strength of Vijayanagara army at 11 lakh and counts the number of ports at 300.

During Krishna Deva Raya's reign, 2 Portuguese travellers visited the empire

● Durate Barbosa -

He describes the ship building and sati system.
He mentions that diamond and precious stones were imported from Pegu and silk was imported from China, whereas, black pepper came from Malabar coast.

● Domingo Paes

He was received by Krishnadeva Raya at his court.
He has described the beauty of Vijayanagar and the king's personal attributes. According to him, Krishna deva raya was a warrior king, whose body was covered in battlescars.

During the reign of Achyuta Raya, the Portuguese horse trader, FERNANDO NUNIZ, visited the empire.

He has mainly described the social and cultural aspects of Vijayanagara in his travelogue.

He says that there were women scribes, wrestlers, astronomers, musicians and fortune tellers in Vijayanagara.

He also mentions the social evils like dowry, Sati and child marriage which prevailed in the Vijayanagara society.

He praises the Brahmins of Vijayanagara as honest people who were good scribes also.

Accordingto Nuniz,therulersof Quilon,Sri Lanka,Pulicat,Pegu,Tennasserim and Malaya paid tribute to the Vijayanagara King.

Healsodescribes the Nayankarasystemandsaysthattherateoflandrevenue was 1/10 th. Economy The Vijayanagara economy was similar to the Chola economy.

Economic administration was shaped according to the mercantile conditions. The coastal areas were dotted with ports and cities. Often, cities were centres of commercial, cultural, religious and political activities.

Its main income sources were agriculture and commerce, the former being the main sourceofincome.Thetaxranged from 1/4 to 1/6,dependinguponthequalityof land.

Irrigation was an important source of income for the state.

It wascalled 'Dashavanda' in the Tamil area and 'Kattukadage' in the Kannada area.

Even temples and Amaranayakas encouraged the extension of irrigation to the semi-arid areas.

In the Karnataka area, the Kattukadage rights were especially mentioned in the inscriptions so as to protect the income of the concerned individual.

Land was divided into three parts-

'Amaram' land, which was biggest of the three groups, went to the Nayak; 'Bhandarvada' land was the crown land and a part of income from this land went to the maintenance of forts and

The tax free 'Manya' land was granted to the temples, Brahmans and Mathas.

A majority of people lived in the rural areas which were fairly self-dependent.

Temples played an important role in rural life.
Temples had amassed huge land and acted as centres of socio- economic life.

Artisans operated in guilds.

Theireconomicimportance gavethempoliticalinfluenceinthecourtand their leaders had the ears of important political figures.

Items of trade

According to 'Amuktamalyada', the main items of import were horses, precious stones, sandalwood and pearl etc.

According to Nuniz, Vijayanagara state was importing 13000 horses annually.
Commodities like rice, sugar, coconut, dyes, sandalwood, black pepper, ivory, silk and printed cotton were exported mainly to Persia, Africa, China and Sri Lanka.

The level of monetization was high as the trade was mainly in coins.

Hence, the Vijayanagara state had many mints.

Also, the state made sure that the foreign trade did not slip into the hands of rival states.

Thus, they made concessions to foreigners like the Portuguese.

Overall, the internal trade during this period was stable and increased gradually.

The trade of India during this period invited both envy and admiration of the foreign travelers.Perhaps,Indiawasintheprocessofbecoming the proverbial 'Golden Bird' during this period.

Society The society was caste based and hierarchical, however, unlike north India, there was not a four-fold Varna division, rather the society had Brahmins and Non-Brahmins.

Brahmins held the supreme position and enjoyed both political power and social prestige.

The kings, top officials, ministers, army commanders, etc. were Brahmin.
Brahmin priests received lightly taxed land grants.
Educational institutions were completely under their control
Religious life was characterised by regimented ritualism due to which their importance increased.

The Non-Brahmins were divided into the Valangai (right handed) and Idangai (left handed) castes.

The Valangai group consisted of castes with an agricultural basis, whereas,
The Idangai group consisted of castes which were involved in manufacturing, craft and trading etc.

The society was not divided along blood relations but on the basis of geography.

So, it was common that blood relatives living in separate geographical areas establish marital relations.

Due to Brahmanical orthodoxy prevalent in the Vijayanagara society, the condition of women in the Vijayanagara society was no better than north India.

Child Marriage and Polygamy were common.
Widow remarriages were considered taboo.

However, the rulers encouraged it through tax exemptions.

Tippadiyal (Sati) was also popular.

At the same time, we also find evidence of male Royal bodyguards
jumping onto the funeral pyres of deceased kings.

Intemples, Devadasiswereheavilyexploitedbuttheconditionof Ganikaswas far better.

Although the Varnashrama Dharma system was rigidly observed, the Vijayanagara kings were remarkably liberal and practical in their outlook.

Theyreadilypatronisedskilledartisans,workmen,scholarsandpromotedable administrators and military commanders from all backgrounds, including Muslims.

They welcomed Christian missionaries from Portugal.
They even joined hands with the Golconda Sultanate against the Gajpati rulers.

Culture Bukka I invited scholars and artists from all over India to his Kingdom. In the subsequent centuries, Vijayanagara Empire oversaw further evolution of the Dravida School of architecture, development of Telugu literature and evolution of new art forms etc.

Architecture Vijayanagara made special contributions to the Dravida School.

Now, the temple enclosures became wider.
The temple walls were painted with themes from epics and Puranas and the lavishly ornamented Gopurams grew taller as they enclosed more area.

Kalyan Mandapa was a Vijayanagara addition to the temples, where ceremonial weddings of the deities were organised.

Another important feature was the profusely decorated pillars.

A mount with two lofted feet is an impressive sculpture on these pillars.
Pillars invariably had brackets as their capitals. Vithhal Swamiand Hazaratemplesarethetwoexamplesofthisperiodwithraisedplatforms, big assembly halls and pillars.

Kumbakonam, Kanchipuram, Srirangam, Chidambaram, Tirumala and Vellore etc. are full of the Vijayanagara era temples.

Secular buildings had features of Indo-Islamic architecture too.

E.g. The elephant stable at Hampi which had domes and the Lotus Mahal Ruins of Vijayanagara (modern Hampi) are the witness to the genius of Vijayanagara architecture.

Vijayanagara architecture was carried forward by the Madurai school in later centuries.

Literature Vijayanagara kings were great patrons of literature and education and Krishna Deva Raya has a special place among them.

Sanskrit Literature

Sanskrit literature was reinvigorated under state sponsorship.

Under the leadership of Sayanacharya (brother of Vidyaranya), scholars composed a large number of Sanskrit works including commentaries on the Vedic corpus.

Hemadri also wrote a commentary on the Dharmashastras.

Authors in the regional languages- Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada and Tamil- were also patronised.

Telugu Literature

This was also the period of Telugu renaissance, e.g. the gems produced by the Astadiggaja of Krishna Deva Raya.

Additionally, a large number of Sanskrit religious and secular literature was translated into Telugu

eg. Tirumal wrote a commentary on the 'Geet Govinda' of Jayadeva. Malayalam Literature

The first authentic Malayalam literature, 'Unnuneeli Sandesham' waswritten during this period, which is based on Kalidasa's Meghadutam.

Madhav Panikkar translated Bhagavad Gita into Malayalam. Kannada Literature

Kannada scholar Madhur wrote, Dharmanathapuran, which is based on the life of 15 th Jain Tirthankar.

Palkuriki Somnatha wrote many pieces on Virashaivism in Telugu and Kannada.
'Karnataka Shabd Anushasan', the Kannada grammar was written during this period. Tamil Literature

Except for Tamil, the themes and styles of these works were mostly derived from Sanskrit literature.

Jain, Shaivite and Vaishanava saints composed religious literature in Tamil. Other art forms

Portuguese writers and Abdur Razzaq have mentioned the talented painters in the service of Vijayanagara state.

Lepakshi painting developed during this period.
Themes from epics were used in this type of painting.

A large number of portrait sculptures were made during this period.

The portrait sculpture of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens is found in Tirupati temple

A new art form called, 'Yakshgana', developed during this period which mixed both music and dance.

It was mostly associated with temples.

Nambudiri Brahmins developed a new art form, 'Koodiyattam', in which Puranic stories are told through dance.

The Vijayanagara period saw Carnatic music evolve into a definite form.

Purandara Dasa was a renowned proponent of Carnatic music.
Rudraveena was possibly invented during this period.

Bharatnatyam was also promoted during this period, primarily as a form of temple art.

Contribution of Krishna Dev Raya to art and literature

Duetohiscreativegenius,Krishna Deva Rayawascomparableto Akbar.Despitetheincessant fighting, he could focus on the creative potential of his empire as his court was decorated with many scholars and artists.

He had good command over both Telugu and Sanskrit.

He continued the earlier tradition of writing commentaries on the Vedas and other Sanskrit works.

During his period, Telugu literature came out of the shadow of Sanskrit literature. His reign was a period of Telugu renaissance.

His court had 8 Telugu poets (Astadiggajas) - Allasani Peddana, Nandi Thimmana,Madayyagari Mallana,Dhurjati,Ayyala-raju,Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushanudu and Tenali Ramakrishna.

These scholars authored amazing masterpieces.
His own work, Amuktamalyada, is an epic poem in Telugu which
describes the wedding of Lord Vishnu and Andal, a Tamil bhakti poet.

He patronised Tamil and Kannada scholars too.
He composed literature in Sanskrit too.

He also patronised art and architecture.

Dravida School of architecture evolved further under his rule, e.g. Hazara temple and Vithhal temple.

Duarte Barbosa profusely praises him for his religious tolerance, his sense of justice and his efficient administration.

Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1687)

Unified Bahmani (1347-1482)

After Muhammad bin Tughlaq abandoned Daultabad, it was captured by Zafar Khan alsoknownas Hasan Ganguinc.1345 CE.Hetookthetitle, 'Allauddin Bahaman Shah' upon founding the Bahmani Sultanate which lasted roughly two centuries.

He moved his capital to Gulbarga in c. 1347 CE, which was moved again to Bidar in c.

1422 Ce.

A running theme in the entire history of Bahamani Kingdom is the struggle with Vijayanagara Empire for the control over Raichur Doab, Krishna-Godavari Delta and the Konkan coast, especially its ports like Goa and the conflict between Afaqi and Dakhni nobles.

Political fortunes kept swinging and the details of individual struggles are not important from the point of view of historical processes.

Firoz Shah Bahmani

The brightest star on the Bahmani firmament was the Firuz Shah Bahamani (c. 1397-

1422 Ce).

He was a polymath who was deft in religion,logic, natural sciences and linguistics etc.

He was conversant in several languages such as Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Urdu, Kannada and Telugu.

He was tolerant of other religions and had personally read both the Old and New Testament.

It was during his reign that Gesu Daraz, the famous Chishti Sufi saint established his Khanqah at Gulbarga.

Thedeclineof the Delhi Sultanatemeantthatmanylearnedmenmigrated from Delhi to the Gulbarga.

Firoz also invited scholars and nobles from Iraq and Iran.

Manyof these West Asian migrantswere Shiite.Undertheir influence, Persian culture and Shiite doctrine grew within the Bahmani Sultanate.

He also inducted a largenumber of Hindus in administration,which possibly acted as a balance against the influx of foreigners called Afaqis or Gharibs.

He built an observatory at Daulatabad.
Having initially defeated Devaraya I, he was later dealt a crushing defeat by a Warangal-Vijayanagar alliance led by Devaraya I and was forced to abdicate in favour of his brother Ahmad Shah 'Wali'.

Ahmed Shah Wali

He conquered Warangal, thus breaking the Vijayanagar-Warangal alliance. Following this, he shifted the capital to Bidar to better control the newly conquered territory.

This shifted the balance of power in the favour of Bahamanis.

They conquered Berar, Khandesh and some parts of the Konkan coast during the second half of the 15 th century.

Asaresult,Vijayanagarwasconsiderablyweakened.Theperiodafter Devaraya IIwas a period of chaos and the frontiers of Vijayanagar shrank on all sides.

The confusion allowed the Gajapatis of Orissa to move into the Delta region.

However, he is remembered more for his contribution as sufi saint than as a ruler. He was a close associate of Gesu Daraz and his death anniversary is jointly celebrated by both Hindus and Muslims.

Muhammad Gawan Not much is known about his early life. He gradually rose in the service of the Bahamani kingdom until he was appointed as 'Wakil-us Sultanat' (Prime Minister) when the new King Muhammad Shah III was coronated in 1463. He dominated the affairs of the Bahamani kingdom for the next two decades.

Territorial Expansion

He aligned with Vijayanagara to defeat the Gajapatis.
He also made deep inroads into Vijayanagara.

He annexed the Raichur doab and reached as far as Kanchipuram.
He was also able to snatch Dabhol and Goa from Vijayanagara.

Control over these two ports greatly boosted the external trade. Internal trade and manufacturing of the Kingdom also grew.

Gawan had to wage a bitter struggle with Malwa ruler Mahmud Khalji over the question of Berar.

In this struggle, he was given active help by the Gujarat rulers. Internal Reforms and Downfall

He carried out the administrative reorganisation of the Sultanate by dividing it into 8 provinces 'Taraf/Atrafs'.

He also strengthened the military by including local Marathas in the army. He introduced the practice of making land grants to top commanders, thus winning Maratha loyalty.

He also introduced the system of survey and measurement for land revenue.
Apart from opening 'Muqtabs' for elementary education, Gawan also set up a large Madrasa (college) in Bidar in the traditional Persian style called 'REGISTAN'.

It wasa three storeybuilding in which a thousand teachers and students could live.

Some of the most famous scholars of the time from Iran and Iraq came there to teach.

The struggle between the Afaqis and Dakhni nobles was initially calmed by Mahmud Gawan.

However, he couldn't bridge the factional gap completely, ultimately falling victim to it himself.

The young sultan executed him on trumped up charges. The strife became only more intense after this and the Bahamani Kingdom soon splintered into the five Deccan states, out of which, Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmednagar played important historical roles.

Afanasy Nikitin

He was possibly the first Russian traveller to come to India. He has described both Vijayanagar and Bahamani kingdom in the 15 th century.

Nikitin calls Mahmud Gawan, 'Tuzzar', as Mahmud Gawan held the title of 'Malik-i- Tuzzar'.

According to him, the land was very populous and the common people were very poor. But the nobles lived in great luxury.

Nikitin was amazed to see the king and the nobles ride on men. Perhaps he refers to palanquins carried by four to twenty men on special occasions.

It was his observation that, in India, everyone goes naked. All were barefoot, walked fast and were strong.

The intensity of heat possibly made people use scanty clothes. Perhaps this practice made Nikitin think that they went 'naked'.

He, however, admits that they wore jewellery and ornaments.

He has given a rich, but not free from errors, account of contemporary society. Administration The Bahamanis imitated the broad administrative structure of Delhi Sultanate. The offices and departments bear similarity with the ones from Delhi Sultanate.

However, some new offices were created with time, e.g. Wakil-us-Sultanat (Prime minister).

Muhammad I (c. 1358-78 CE) is credited for institutionalizing the administrative structure.

The Sultanate was divided into four 'tarafs' with their headquarters at Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar and Gulbarga.

Governors (Tarafdars) of different provinces were given different titles.

Mahmud Gawan tried to reform the administration.

He tried to issue revenue assignments on the basis of land measurement.
He also tried to curb the power of the 'tarafdars', who were controlling the military administration of the province.

The law of primogeniture gained comparatively more acceptance in the Bahamani Kingdom than the Delhi Sultanate.

Throughoutthelifeof Bahamani Kingdom,therewasatusslebetween the Dakhniand Afaqi nobles over plum posts in the administration.

Economy and Society

The economy under the Bahamani sultans was prosperous but highly unequal.

Nikitin has thrown light on the trade and commerce of this period. According to him, Dabhol port was connected with the other ports of the Indian subcontinent and Africa.

Horses, clothes, silk and black pepper etc. were important items of trade.
Horses were imported from Arabia, Khurasan and Turkistan.
Indian merchants dominated the inland trade.

Nikitin highlights the glaring inequality between the nobility and commoners.

However, the society must have been more differentiated than this binary classification as the different occupational and ethnic groups must have occupied different positions in the socioeconomic hierarchy.

The social outlook of the Bahmani kings was mostly liberal.

Hindus of all castes, local Muslims, the immigrants from central and west Asia etc. lived in the kingdom which had a cosmopolitan structure.

Shia Muslims emerged as a social group due to migration from central Asia.

Persian, Marathi, Dakhni, Kannada and Telugu etc. were the commonly spoken languages.

Hindus were usually not discriminated against.

There isno solid evidence to suggest that Jizyawasimposed.If it wascollected at all, then, it was a part of Kharaj.

Sufis migrated to the Deccan before and during this period in a large number. Sultans needed their support for legitimacy. Sattariya, Chishti and Qadiri were among the main Sufi orders.

Bidar was an important centre of the Qadiria order.
The Chistisaint Syed Muhammad Gesu Darazmigrated from Delhito Gulbarga in c. 1402 CE. Firuz Shah granted 'Inam' land for the maintenance of his 'khanqah'.

Successor States (1482-1687)

Ahmednagar-itwasruledby the Nizam Shahidynasty.In 1601 itwasforcedtoaccept the Mughal suzerainty by Akbar. It was finally annexed by Shah Jahan in 1636.

Bidar- it was ruled by the Barid Shahi Dynasty and was absorbed by the Ahmednagar Sultanate.

Berar - it was ruled by the Imad Shahi dynasty, and was also absorbed by the Ahamednagar.

Bijapur - it was ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty. It was forced to accept the Mughal suzerainty by the Shah Jahan in 1636 and later annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.

Golkonda - it was ruled by the Qutub Shahi dynasty and suffered the same fate as Bijapur. Shah Jahan established Mughal overlordship over it in 1636 and Aurangzeb annexed it in 1687.

Important personalities of the later phase included

Ibrahim Adil Shah - He built the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, the largest dome in Asia. He was also known as Jagatguru due to his religious tolerance, love for knowledge and music.

Malik Ambar - originally a slave from Ethiopia named Chapu.

He was educated and trained in Baghdad, converted to Islam and renamed.
Hewassoldintotheserviceof Malik Dabir(Royal Scribe)of Ahmednagar under whom he gained administrative and military experience.

After the death of his master, he was freed and became a military leader, raising his own force.

Mughal aggression towards the Deccan allowed him to quickly rise in power.
He became the Prime Minister and had his daughter married to the Sultan of Ahmednagar, becoming the regent and de facto ruler of Ahmednagar.

He joined hands with the Marathas to successfully resist Mughal encroachment. Bahmani - Vijayanagar Struggle The 14 th century saw the emergence of two powerful Deccani kingdoms.

Bahamani Sultanate covered the linguistic region of Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. It was situated to the north of the Vijaynagar Empire.

The Vijaynagar Empire covered the linguistic region of Telugu, Tamil, Kannada.

Their proximity led to a number of disputes between the two kingdoms and their history in rife with incessant warfare. For almost 200 years, they fought for the control of,

The Konkan Coast, including important ports such as Goa and Dabhol
Raichur Doab (between the Krishna and the Tunghbadhra)
Krishna-Godavari Delta
During this period, their fortunes shifted constantly. Finally in 1565, the combined armies of 4 successor states (Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar) defeated the

Vijayanagar Empire, being led by Rama Raya, in the decisive Battle of Talikota/ Bannihatti/ Rakshasa Tagadi.

The Vijaynagar empire collapsed after this. However, some of its Amara Nayakas continued to rule independently.

Q: Examine the nature of conflict between the Vijayanagara Kingdom and the Bahamani Sultanate.

Both, Vijayanagara Empire and Bahamani Kingdom were born almost simultaneously and started fighting immediately.

Harihar and Bukka took the help of Hindu revivalist movement of Kapaya Nayaka to complete his independence project.

They were also associated with a Hindu monk Vidyaranya.
Often, the geopolitical contest between the Bahamanis and Vijayanagara took a bloody religious turn.

Vijayanagara Kingstriedtocreatetheimageofa Hindustateand the Sultansalso used religion and religious vengeance as it suited them.

Richard Eaton calls the Vijayanagara frontier the 'Maginot Line' of the Deccan. Historiography

However, it was essentially a geopolitical conflict with historical roots.

They fought for the control of fertile land and strategic ports, just like the erstwhile kingdoms of the Peninsular India had fought for the control of Raichur Doab, Krishna-Godavari Delta and the Konkan Coast.

Their Rajamandala considerations were purely secular. Once they even aligned with each other.

Firuz Shah employed a large number of Hindus in his administration and Vijayanagara inducted Muslim archers in their army.

Within their respective kingdoms, there was no considerable favouritism in the matters of taxation, trade and rights of the subjects.

Both kingdoms practised their own versions of tolerance.
Thus, it becomes clear that the Vijayanagar-Bahmani conflict was not a religious crusadebut religionwascertainlyusedto mobilise the respectivesides more strongly.