Early Medieval Age (8 th - 12 th C. CE)

Tripartite struggle (8 th - 10 th C. CE)

It was a struggle for supremacy and control over the Central Gangetic Valley among three

early medieval empires. The major factors for the struggle were as follows:

• To acquire control over the rich resources of the Ganga Valley.
• To assert supremacy over Kannauj, a symbol of prestige and power since the period

of Harshvardhan.

• To acquire control over the lucrative trade routes of Gujarat and Malwa.
• To acquire war booty, which was important for maintaining a large army.

Powers Involved

1. The Palas - they ruled over Bengal and Bihar. Notable kings include:

• Gopala - he was elected as king in 750 CE. He brought stability to Bengal, which had

been facing anarchy since the defeat of Shashanka. He was a patron of Buddhism and

established the

• Odantapuri Mahavihara (Bihar Sharif).
• Dharampal - he temporarily established control over Kannauj but lost to the

Rashtrakutas. He built the

• Vikramshila Mahavihara (Bhagalpur, Bihar),
• Jagdalla Mahavihara (Bangladesh) and
• Somapura Mahavihara (Bangladesh).
• Devpala - he conquered Pragjyotishpur and parts of Odisha. During his reign the

Nalanda monastery was expanded through donations made by Balaputradeva (the

Shailendra king of Suvarnadwipa).

1. The Gurjara-Pratiharas - It is believed that their ancestors belonged to the Gurjara tribe of

Central Asia,whosettledin south-west Rajasthanand Gujarat.Theprocessofstateformation

gradually propelled them to power.

Theyclaimed Kshatriyastatusas Rajputsandalsoclaimedtobethedescendantsof Lakshman.

Their empire included Avanti, Ujjain and Jalore. They are notable kings were:

• Nagabhatta I - the first ruler who successfully resisted Arab expansion from Sindh.
• Nagabhatta II - he gained control of Kannauj by defeating the Palas but was himself

defeated by the Rashtrakutas.

• Mihir Bhoja - considered to be the greatest Pratihara ruler. He was praised by Arab

travellers for his military prowess and patronage of the arts and literature. According

tothem,the Pratiharas importedhorses from Arabia andhadthebestcavalryin India.

• Mahendrapal - he expanded his empire to Bihar and north Bengal. His inscriptions

have been found from Kathiawar, Punjab and Awadh. He also fought against the king

of Kashmir but had to return empty-handed.

• Mahipal - he patronised the famous Sanskrit poet Rajashekhara who composed the

'Kapuramanjari', the 'Kavyamimanasa', the 'Bala-Ramayan' and the 'Bala-Bharat'.

1. The Rashtrakutas - They were of Kannada origin and hailed from Lattaluru/Latur

(Maharashtra). Their empire extended over the Deccan with their capital at

Manyakheta/Malkhed (Karnataka). Their important Kings included:

• Dantidurga - hebeganhis career asa feudatoryof the Chalukyas. He overthrewthem

and established his capital at Manyakheta.

• Krishna I - he was Dantidurga's uncle. He constructed the Kailashnath Temple (Ellora

cave complex).

• Dhruva III - he was the first south Indian king to successfully invade north India. He

defeated the Palas and Pratiharas to establish his supremacy over Kannauj.

• Govinda III-helostallthegainsmadeby Dhruva IIIandwasdrivenoutof North India.
• Amoghvarsha - considered to be the greatest of the Rashtrakutas. He preferred

literature over warfare. Three important works are attributed to him.

• 'Kavirajmarga' - first book of Kannada poetry.
• 'Ratnamalika' and 'Prasnottaramalika' - moral treatises in Sanskrit.
• Indira III - he established Rashtrakuta power in North India and acquired control of

Kannauj and Gujarat.

• Krishna III - he defeated the Pratiharas and Parantaka I (Chola ruler), thus annexing

the northern part of the Chola empire. He erected a victory pillar and constructed a

temple at Rameswaram.

Outcome

• The tripartite struggle continued for almost 2 centuries. Frequent wars became a

characteristic of this period. The fortune of the parties kept shifting continuously.

However, no single power could emerge as the clear winner.

• The intense warfare sapped the strength and vitality of the contenders, exhausting

their human and economic resources.

• Although the Pratiharas finally established control over Kannauj, this was a pyrrhic

victory.

• The three powers disintegrated almost simultaneously towards the end of the 10 th

century CE. This left India without a dominant central authority. As a result, India was

unable to resist the Turkish invasions from the 10 th century onwards.

Arab Invasion of Sind

• Arabs are a group of people with a shared language and culture living in the Arabic

world i.e., west of Iran up to north Africa.

• The Arabs had had trading contacts with India since the early Christian centuries. The

first Arabs to come to India were thus non-Muslims.

• Islam spread amongthe Arabs duringthe 7 th century CE and India's first contact with

the Muslim world also took place through Arab traders.

• As invaders, the Arabs came to Sindh in the beginning of the 8 th century CE (711-

712 Ce).

• The text 'Futuh-ul-Abdan' by Al-Biladuri and 'Chachnama' by an unknown author are

important sources for the study of this period.

• Mohammed bin Qasim defeated King Dahir of the Chach Dynasty.
• He was sent to establish control over the Sindh region by the Caliph at

Baghdad.

• The justification for this invasion was to punish the ruler of Sindh where some

Arab merchants had reportedly been looted while returning from Kerala.

• The Arab hold over Sind lasted for the next 300 years, influencing the local

culture heavily.

• However, their influence could not expand further into the subcontinent

beyond Sind due to the presence of the Pratiharas to the east.

Cultural impact of Arab conquest on Sind

• Islam spread rapidly and became the most popular religion in Sindh.
• The development of Sindhi language was also influenced by the introduction of

several Arabic words.

• The Arabic script became popular and today Sindhi is written both in Arabic as well as

Devanagari script.

• Geography, history, medicine, astronomy received a huge boost due to Arab

influence, who had developed advanced knowledge in these fields.

• The Arabs were also great interlocutors of culture. They transmitted many new

inventions from China and Greece to the rest of the world. e.g. paper, soap, gun

powder, the magnetic compass etc.

Cultural impact on Arabs

• In the field of mathematics, they learnt the Hindsa (the Indian numeral system

including zero) and the use of decimals.

• This revolutionised the development of science and commerce.
• They learnt yoga from the great Indian physician Manak, who was appointed as the

chief surgeon at Baghdad.

• The great Indian physicist Hala was also invited to Baghdad. He contributed to the

development of physics in the Arab world.

• The Arabs also learnt Chaturanga/ Shatranj from India.

Political impact of the Arab Conquest of Sind

• It was due to military success against Arab invaders that certain Indian dynasties like

Gurjar-Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas gained legitimacy.

• Arabswerethefirsttoestablishan Islamicstate in India,whichbecame atemplatefor

the Turkish rulers later.

Rajputs

Due to their persistent mutual conflict, both Pala and Pratihara powers declined and they

were supplanted by smaller states that have been identified as Rajput states.

Some of the important Rajput dynasties were as following:

• Chauhans of Delhi - Ajmer area
• Gahadavalas of Kannauj region
• Solankis of Gujarat
• Paramaras of Malwa
• Kalachuris of Tripuri
• Chandelas of Khajuraho-Kalinjar- Mahoba area, etc.

Origin of the Rajputs

It is one of the hotly debated issues of Indian historiography.

There have been controversies over their "foreign vs. local" origin. But, a deeper assessment

tells us that the origin of Rajputs was part of a larger and a complex socio-political process.

• The Kshatriya Varna of ancient period possibly got absorbed in the Rajput identity.
• Whatever their Varna or the location of their origin might be, if a social group

emerged as a ruling class, then it was incorporated into the larger Rajput identity.

• Agrarian economyexpanded intothe tribal areaswith thehelp of land grants.

Consequently, a class of local level landlords also emerged.

■ These land owners, in turn, built their own forts and maintained small

armed contingents. Therefore, these groups despite their tribal origin

became Rajputs.

• Then, some groups with hitherto lower social status, due to the expanding

agrarian economy and its surplus, became rich landlords.

■ They elevated their social status with the help of marital alliances and

joined the Rajput class.

• The concept of 'Bramhachhatra' also helped some dynasties to achieve Rajput status.
• E.g.Gurjara-Pratiharasfirst tookthe'Bramhana' statusandthentheyacquired

'Kshatriya' status. In this way, they joined the Rajput class.

Political system of the Rajputs

• Multi-state system was a feature of the Rajput polity.
• It had developed since some old states had fragmented and, due to the

expansion of agrarian economy and land grants, some new states had

emerged.

• The deification of kingship continued.
• Gahadwala rulers like Chandradeva and Govindchandra took the titles of

'Gopal' and 'Hari' respectively.

• Rajputrulersalsoadoptedpompoustitleslike Parmeshwara,Bhateshwaraetc.
• Rajput states were divided into bhuktis, which in turn, were divided into mandalas

and vishayas, in that order. Grama (Village) was the smallest unit of administration.

• Feudalism - In the Rajput states, land was divided between 'home provinces' and

'jagirs'.

• In the home province, the king enjoyed direct rule and appointed officials.
• But, jagirs were divided between his samantas.
• Basically, villages were grouped together in the multiple of 10, 12 and 16 and

allotted to the feudatories.

• In return, these feudatories paid military service.
• Feudalisation of bureaucracy took place i.e. some important feudatories were given

royal offices and, on the other hand, considering the significance of some royal

officials they were given status of a feudatory.

• A whole chain of subordinate rulers and feudatories had developed under

them viz. Mandlik, Mandaleshwar, Mahamandalesh war, Samanta,

Mahasamanta, etc.

• Rajput armies were made up of feudal levies.
• Thus they did not have a strong centralised command, due to which they

lacked cohesion and coordination.

• Rajputs had deep attachment to their area, their lineage and their blood relations.
• Due to this, they could not establish an all Indian alliance, even in the face of

repeated Turkish invasions.

• Neighbouring kingdoms were treated as obvious enemies and this resulted in the

emergence of a ritualised martial tradition.

• The most ideal king was one who attacked his neighbour on the day after

Vijayadashami.

• As a result, war was treated as a sport.
• Several rules of war were observed such as

■ not fighting after dusk,

■ not attacking an unarmed enemy,

■ not retreating even in the face of certain death and

■ not attacking a surrendered enemy.

• The notion of a glorious death was popularised. Martyrdom was coveted and

Veergathas (eulogies) were written in honour of martyrs.

• In contrast, the Turks had no such scruples. They treated war as a means to an end

rather than an end in itself.

• Thus, they could easily overcome the Rajputs during their invasions.

Social system of the Rajputs

• The Rajput society was extremely hierarchical and the Varnashrama Dharma system

was rigidly observed.

• Brahmins occupied the supreme position and received lavish gifts in the form

of precious metals, cattle and land from both the state and lay people.

• The right to rule was strictly in the hands of the Kshatriyas.
• Further, only Kshatriyas had the right to take up arms.
• The ruling class depended upon the priests to legitimise their rule.
• In his book 'Kitab ul Hind', Al-Biruni observes that there was no discernible difference

between the condition of the shudras and the Vaishyas.

• This was due to the decline of trade and the increasing importance of

agriculture.

• Al-Biruni says that neither of them had the right to recite or to listen to the

Vedas.

• Proliferation of casts and emergence of sub-jatis due to the following reasons:
• Peasantization of various tribal groups due to the expansion of agrarian

economy.

• Occupational groups turned into caste groups.

■ Kalhana mentions 64 jatis

■ Al-Biruni mentions 4 varnas and 8 antyaja castes.

■ Brahmavaivarta Purana mentioned 100 mixed jatis.

• The practice of untouchability was widespread and outcasts were heavily ostracised

against.

• The number of untouchables consistently increased. Al-Biruni mentions the

presence of 8 antyaja castes (outcasts). It was because-

■ Some of the tribal groups that were enrolled into the "caste based

settled agrarian societies" were relegated to an untouchable status.

■ Duetotherevivalof Brahmanism,someoftheoccupationalgroupslost

their social status and were pushed into the category of untouchables.

• Theoretically, some improvement in women's social status is visible.
• E.g. In the 'Mitakshara', Vigyaneshwara's commentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti,

women were given the right to inherit property.

• Similarly, in the Swayamvara tradition of Rajputs, women had the right to

choose their own husbands.

• But, in practice, their social status declined further.
• According to Al-Biruni, the condition of women was extremely poor. They had

to face several social evils.

■ Purdah

■ Female infanticide

■ Denial of education

■ Child marriage

■ Denial of inheritance

■ Sati

■ Jauhar

• Education was entirely controlled by the temples and the priestly class.
• Al-Biruni reports that the right to receive education was exclusive to upper

caste males.

• He mentions that Indians had advanced knowledge of mathematics and

astronomy. However, Indian learning had stagnated due to the superiority

complex and inward looking attitude of Indians.

■ He says that the Hindus (people of India) believe that their country is

the best of all countries; their king is the best of all kings and their

science is the best of all sciences.

■ But he clarifies that their ancestors were not so narrow minded.

• He further blames Brahmins as being insulators of knowledge.
• Peasants formed the bulk of the population and bore the maximum burden of

taxation. Both Vaishyas and shudras were engaged in cultivation.

• Al-Biruni further informs us that common masses lived in extreme poverty and were

heavily taxed.

• Meanwhile, temples had become fabulously rich due to large donations and

tax-free land grants.

• Thus, they had emerged as soft targets for invaders.
• Al-Biruni talks in detail about fasting and pilgrimage in India. Kannauj, Kurukshetra

and Benaras were important pilgrim centres.

• Al-Biruni mentions some peculiar habits of Indians viz.
• no shaving of hair and not trimming nails,
• drinking alcohol before eating,
• eating betel leaves and
• riding horses without a saddle.

Turkish Invasions

• The Turks were a collection of ethnically and religiously diverse warlike tribes of

nomadic herders spread across the Steppes of Central Asia.

• They were driven out of their homeland in the 8 th and 9 th centuries due the

rise of other groups.

• Being excellent horsemen, they entered the service of the growing Caliphate in which

they served as both mercenaries and regular soldiers. They also accepted Islam.

• Gradually,theyrosetopowerundertheincreasingly Persianised Caliphateandspread

to different partsof Central and Western Asia to establish powerful kingdoms such as

• The Seljuk Sultanate of Anatolia
• The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt
• The Ghaznavids Empire of Afghanistan
• Beginning fromthe 10th century, the Ghaznavids mounted several invasions of India

under:

• Alaptgin (948-973 CE)
• Subuktgin (973-998 CE)
• Mahmud Ghazni (998-1030 CE)

Mahmud of Ghazni

• Also known as 'Butshikan' (idol breaker), he is said to have invaded India 17 times.
• His first attack came in 1000 CE against Jaipala, the Hindu Shahiruler of Northwestern

Punjab and Southeastern Afghanistan.

• His most famous attack was on Somnath in 1025-26 CE, in which the Solanki ruler,

Bhima I fled instead of facing the invader.

• Firdausi's 'Shahnameh', considered to be a jewel of Persian literature, consists of a

mythologicalandhistoricalaccountof Persiankings.Itcoversboththepre-Islamicand

Islamic phases of Persian history.

• It also includes a Qaseeda (eulogy written in praise of a living subject)

dedicated to Mahmood.

• Abu Rehan Al-Biruni - originally from Khwarizm, he found his way to the court of

Mahmud. He was a polymath who excelled in various disciples such as philosophy,

science, mathematics, theology and linguistics.

• After accompanying Mahmud to India, he stayed at Banaras for two years

where he learnt Sanskrit and researched about India by conversing with

learned men and reading ancient scriptures.

• His work 'Kitab ul Hind' is regarded as a mirror of 11 th century India. It is the

first true historical work on India written in Persian.

• The early invaders did not want to establish an empire in India, nor did they try to

spread Islam.

• Their main motive was to plunder Indian wealth, especially temple wealth, to

fund their own wars in Central Asia.

Rise of Ghurid Empire

• After the decline of the Ghaznavid Empire two empires emerged in Central Asia to fill

up the vacuum- the Khwarizmi Empire and Ghurid Empire.

• Mohammed-bin-Sam,popularlyknownas Mohammed Ghori,tookthethroneat Ghur

in 1173 and looked towards India.

• His larger objectivewas to expand in Central Asia while using the resources of

India.

• But unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to establish direct control over

Hindustan as well.

• Initially he tried to enter India through Bolan pass (Balochistan), looking to avoid

confrontation with Ghazani's successor in Punjab.

• But he received a setback as he was defeated by Bhima II of Gujarat in 1178.
• Then he turned towards Punjab, finally conquering it by 1190. Now he wanted to

expand further to the south-east.

• On the other hand, Prithviraj Chauhan III was looking towards the north-west.
• Ghori was defeated in the First Battle of Tarain (1191) by a confederacy of

Rajput Kings led by Prithviraj Chauhan III, who established his control over

Bhatinda (Tabarhind).

• But this victory did not last long. Ghori invaded again and defeated the Chauhans in

the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, capturing Delhi and Ajmer.

• Thus, Turkish Rule was established in north India.
• In 1194, Ghori defeated the Gahadavala ruler of Kannauj, Jaichand in the Battle of

Chandawar.

• But Ghori was unable to consolidate his Indian conquests as his main interest

lay in expansion in Central Asia at the cost of Khwarizm.

• Having laid down the foundations of an empire straddling North India, Afghanistan

and Sindh, he appointed three governors

• Qutubuddin Aibak - Lahore
• Tajuddin Yaldoz - Ghur
• Nasiruddin Qabacha - Sind
• After Ghori's death (1206), his empire broke apart, with each of the three governors

declaring independence and competing against each other.

Bhaktism

1. Origin and rise of Bhakti
2. Spread of Bhakti in North India
3. Nirguna Bhakti and its social impact
4. Saguna Bhakti and its manifestation in different parts of India
5. Historiography of Bhaktism
6. The role of women Bhaktas and the evolution of Bhaktism as a social liberator
7. Cultural contribution of Bhaktism

Origin and the rise of Bhakti

• Bhaktiisinherentin Indian culture.Atdifferentpointsinhistory,Bhaktitookthe form

of a philosophical movement then it became the largest cultural movement in India.

From the viewpoint of time, it covered more than 1000 years.

• Likewise, as for its nature, we can say it was an inclusive cultural phenomenon.
• For example,itassimilatedwithinitselfbothhigh Brahmaniccultureandlower

tribal culture,

• popular elements as well as feudal elements,
• Brahmanic orthodoxy as well as religious liberalism.
• So, it was heterogeneous in character.
• Some elements of Bhakti manifested even in ancient texts like Vedas and

Upanishads.

• But still,asasocial-religiousideology,wefindthefullextentof Bhaktisminthe

text, Bhagwat Gita, first.

• Pre-Gupta Period: Upto the Gupta period Bhaktism emerged as a philosophical

response to Buddhism, however, it largely remained confined to high philosophy and

never really affected the lives of the common people.

• Gupta Period: Then idol worship and temple cult started during Gupta period as a

result of the influence of non-Aryan elements.

• There was an expansion of Aryan culture due to the phenomenon of land

grants and through the process of cultural integration, a large number of non-

Aryan godswere assimilated within the Aryan pantheon preparingthe wayfor

future Hinduism.

• Post-Gupta Period: Tantricism became the dominant sect in North India and it

overpowered Bhaktism for some time.

• Furthermore, we should keep one thing in mind that during Gupta and Post-

Gupta periods, Bhakti got associated with a socio-political phenomenon that

emerged at that time and which was known as feudalism.

• Tamil Bhakti: Then in the 6 th and 7 th centuries, Bhakti appeared in South India as a

popular movement.

• Here the initiative was taken by Alavar and Nayanar saints. According to the

tradition, there were 12 Alwar saints and 63 Nayanar saints.

• Although these saints came from different social backgrounds, most came

from the lower castes. So they opposed varna division.

• That's why initially the Bhakti movement in south India did not work simply as

a religious movement but also a social movement.

• Alavar and Nayanar saints made a demand not simply of religious equality but

also of social equality.

• Acharyas: But after the 10 th century CE, Brahmanic elements started to penetrate

the Tamil Bhakti movement. They were known as Acharyas for example, Nath muni,

Yamunacharya, Ramanujacharya, Vallabhacharya, Madhavacharya etc.

• They began promoting Bhakti as a philosophy once again.
• Ramanujacharya: Then in the 12 th century CE, under Ramanuja, a compromise

formula was reached.

• According to this, although in the religious field equality for all was accepted,

in the social field, Varna division had to continue.

• As a result of thischange, the Bhakti movement was converted from a popular

movement into an elitist movement.

• Ironically, Bhakti became a strong weapon in the hand of Brahmins, with the

support of which they could eliminate Buddhist and Jaina adversaries.

• Simultaneously, this period was marked by the rise of new dynasties in South

India i.e. Cholas.

• This dynasty was in search of legitimacy so they could gain support to

Brahmanas and temple cult.

• Thus Bhaktiemergedasareligiousstructurebasedonanalliancebetweenmonarchy

and Brahmans who were being supported by idol worship and temple cult.

Medieval Bhakti in North India

• Afterthe 13th century,Bhaktitravelledto North India.Itissaidthatit was Ramananda

who carried the message of Bhaktism from South to North India.

• Ramanandaappearedat the endofthe 15th centuryand early 16th century.Hespent

his early life in South India then the rest of the life he spent at Banaras.

• Althoughhewasafollowerof the Ramanujatradition,hebroughtcertaininnovations.
• Forexample,herelaxedthecastebarriersandaccepteddiscipleseven among

lower caste Hindus.

• That's why he is supposed to be the spiritual inspiration behind the lower

caste saints like Kabir, Ravidas, Sena and Dhanna.

Nirguna Bhakti

• By the 15 th century in North India, Nirguna Bhakti had emerged. The background for

Nirguna Bhakti was prepared by the Nathpanthi sect. It had two specialities.

• Firstly, although Nathpanthi saints were worshippers of Lord Shiva, they

worshipped Lord Shiva in a shapeless form.

• Secondly, they were vehemently opposed to the caste system.
• In fact, it is through a proper mix between Nathpanth and Bhakti that Nirguna Bhakti

came into existence in North India.

• Apart from Nathpanth and Bhakti, we can underline the influence of Sufism on

Nirguna Bhakti as well.

• Possibly the intensity of love for God was inspired by Sufism.

Kabirdas became a great exponent of Nirguna Bhakti in North India. His Bhakti had the

following features-

1. Worship of a shapeless God:-

• Kabir's Ram was quite different from Tulsi's Ram as Kabir's Ram is not represented in

anthropomorphic form.

• It was this factor in Kabir which made him opposed to Idol worship.
• So unconsciously he fell into the category of a religious reformer.

1. Opposed to the caste system:-

• Kabir inherited a sense of bitterness against the caste division from Nathpanth.

Simultaneously there might have been some influence of monotheism of Islam as

well.

• Kabirdas asserted that if Allah and Ishwar (God) are one and the same then

how can the followers of Allah and Ishwar be separated from each other as

Muslims and Hindus. In this way,through propagating religions unity Kabirdas

emphasised social unity as well.

• In fact, Kabir had a bitter experience of the caste system. He belonged to the weaver

caste. This caste was at the lowest ladder of Hindu society.

• So in the hope of improvement in their social condition weaver (Julaha) caste

embraced Islam but it realised that even within Muslim society it was

marginalised.

• Sopractically Kabir Dasdevelopedasenseofdisillusionmentin both Hinduism

and Islam.

• It was one of the reasons why Kabir made an attack on Hindu and Islamic ritualism

simultaneously.

1. Challenged the infallibility of the religious scriptures:

• Kabir Das was deprived of education. As he was illiterate he did not get support from

scripture or Shastra.

• But it became a blessing in disguise for Kabir as Kabir made his personal experience

as his guide.

• It was a very important reason why Kabir expressed such original ideas in socio-

religious fields at that time.

1. Kabir as a mystical thinker:-

• When there is intensity of love, but the object of love is not clear thus originates

mysticism.

• In the case of Kabir we find that he worshipped God in shapeless form. But he

expressed a deep love for God in the manner of a Sufi Saint.

• Kabir gave the symbol of a beloved to the Soul and the symbol of lover to Brahma.
• Then he tried to express the relationship between Brahma and Soul through

the symbol of human relations. It is here mysticism in Kabir originates and

brings him near to Sufi Saint as well.

• Apart from Kabir, some others were associated with the saint tradition. For example,

Ravidas,whowasaleatherworker from Banaras;Dhanna,whowasa Jatpeasantfrom

Rajasthan; Sena, a barber and Pipa; all of them belong to lower caste and shared the

same world view with Kabirdas.

Guru Nanak and Sikhism

• Guru Nanak's Bhakti was also influenced by Nath Panth.
• In his speech, there is the use of terms like 'Shabad' (sound) and 'Sunniya'

(emptiness). These terms have been taken from Nath Panthi.

• In this way, he had ideological proximity to Kabir.
• Apart from that, on Sikhism, we can underline the impact of monotheism of Islam as

well.

• Guru Nanak's Bhakti produced a tangible result in the formation of the Sikh state. It

became possible due to certain reasons-

• Sikhism was deeply associated with a collective spiritual experience, rather

than simply an individual experience as you find in the case of other forms of

Nirguna Bhakti.

• For example, Guru Nanak created a large group of followers who were known

as Sikhs.

• Likewise, he started a community kitchen in the form of 'Langar'.
• Later, Guru Arjandev, the fifth guru, gave a textual flavour to Sikhism in form

of Guru Granth Sahib.

• Thenlateranegalitarian Sikhsocietycollidedwiththecoercivefeudal system

under Mughal. It developed a sense of mission.

• Certainly, such developments paved the way for the rise of an independent

Sikh state in the 18 th century.

Contributions of Nirguna Bhakti

1.Itpromotedsocialradicalismthroughanattackonthecaste system.Itrejectedtheexisting

pattern of society.

• Although Kabirdas, Nanak, etc. were basically spiritual leaders, they unconsciously

brought certain reforms within the society itself.

• This was due to the responsibility of religious ritualism for many social evils, for

example, caste division, idol worship, pilgrimage, etc.

• So once these saints attacked religious ritualism, social evils automatically

came into their ambit.

• It is due to this fact, Kabir is characterised as the Martin Luther of the 15 th century.

1. Nirguna Bhakti rejected asceticicism and preferred to remain associated with productive

activities.

• Kabir even after being a saint continued his weaving activity.
• So in one sense, Nirguna Bhakti encouraged production.

1. Apart from this, Nirguna Bhakti promoted production by breaking the relationship

between craft and caste which was a prevailing norm in India at that time.

• In other words, the change of craft created the situation of Varna Samkara that was

decried in society at that time.

• But Nirguna saints encouraged the people to adopt new crafts, thus weakening the

caste system.

1. Nirguna Bhakti made a major contribution to the cultural field as well.

• These saints, not simply reflected the feelings of the common people but also the

language of the common people.

• For example, Kabir used the language of the common people, Hindavi, while Punjabi

was adopted by Nanak. So local dialects were promoted. Kabir has declared that

Sanskrit was just a well's water while Hindavi (perverted form of Hindi) was a

stream.

• Furthermore, Nirguna Bhakti gave support to local literature as well.
• Nanak established Punjabi literature.
• Likewise, Kabir's Sakhi, Ramnia and other sorts of poems contributed to Hindi

literature.

• Bijak and Granthawali of Kabir are supposed to be based on his sermons.
• Even in the development of music, Nirguna Bhakti made its contribution.
• Guru Nanak introduced devotional songs in Sikhism and also the instruments

like Rabab.

• Even today devotional songs are part of the Gurudwara's life.

Limitations:

But in spite of the positive contribution of Nirguna Saints, we shouldn't overestimate it.

• Although it is true that Nirguna Bhakti made an attack on religious rituals and social

tradition, they couldn't bring any radical change in existing religious or social

structure in the true sense.

• Essentially, they were spiritual leaders so, even their reform program was mainly

guided by their personal spiritual realisation, not by any rational ideology.

• That's why they failed to give any alternative system and their protest

remained simply a timely reaction.

• It is sometimes compared with the Protestant movement of Europe.
• In Europe,the Protestantmovementsuccessfullybrokethepillaroffeudalism

and paved the way for the rise of capitalism. However, Nirguna Bhakti could

not overpower the prevailing feudalism of the time.

Vaishnava Bhaktism

• It was different from Nirguna Bhakti. Nirguna Bhakti believed that God didn't take

incarnation nor did he come to earth to play his Lila.

• On the other hand, Saguna Bhakti believed in the concept of incarnation and

reincarnation.

• Two important exponents of Vaishnava Bhakti in North India were Ramananda and

Vallabhacharya.

• Ramananda became an inspiration for both the Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti in North

India.

• Ramananda brought three important changes with respect to the Bhaktism of South

India.

• In place of Lord Vishnu and Shiva, he introduced the Rama cult in North India.
• Secondly, in place of Sanskrit he introduced local dialects in order to spread

his message to the common people.

• Above all, he created a band of followers from the lower castes. In this way,

the difference is clearly visible with prevailing Brahmanic orthodoxy.

• Similarly, Vallabhacharya became an ideological inspiration behind Krishna Bhakti in

North India.

• Vallabhacharya was a Telugu Brahmin. He also appeared at the end of 15 th

and early 16 th century. He was born in Banaras and remained active in North

India.

• He laid the foundation of Ashtachap which comprises 8 important Krishna Bhaktas

and who were ardent followers of Vallabhacharya.

• Vallabhacharya influenced mainly Gujarat and later after the appearance of Surdas,

this movement would be an influential movement in North India in the 17 th century.

The difference in the perception of Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti

1. Nirguna Bhaktiemphasisedontheworshipof Godinashapelessform while Suguna

Bhakti believed in individual Gods.

1. Nirguna Bhakti was having a radical social outlook as it rejected caste division while

Saguna Bhaktimadeacompromisewiththevarnasystemandacceptedcastedivision.

The manifestation of Vaishnava Bhakti in different regions of India

• Vaishnava Bhakti shouldn't be taken as a monolithic movement rather it was

heterogeneous in nature.

• In different regions, its manifestation was slightly different and there it reflected the

influence of some local elements as well.

North India

In North India as well as in Western India, Vaishnava Bhakti manifested itself in two different

branches, i.e. Rama Bhakti and Krishna bhakti. Both became popular movements in these

regions.

Rama Bhakti

• Tulsidas appeared to be a great exponent of Rama bhakti. It was he who carried Ram

Katha to every Hindu household.

• He composed the famous text 'Ramcharitmanas' in Awadhi language which

was associated with the birthplace of Ram. If today the story of Rama has

survived, it isn't in Valmiki's Ramayana, but it is in the language of Tulsidas.

• Another important Ram Bhakta was Nabhadas. He composed a famous text i.e.

'Bhaktamal' in which 200 Bhaktas are mentioned.

Krishna Bhakti

• Surdas emerged to be a great exponent of Krishna bhakti and he popularised his

Bhakti among common masses.

• Heused Braj Bhasha,alocaldialect,andcomposedhisfamoustext,'Sur Sagar'

in this language.

■ The popular story of Lord Krishna, Radha, the Gopis, etc. possibly

caught popular imagination much deeper than even Rama Bhakti.

• Krishna Bhaktiwaspromotedby Narsingh Mehtain Gujaratand Mira Baiin Rajasthan.

Maharashtra Dharma

• Maharashtra Dharma reflected assimilation between Vaishnavism and Nathpanthi

ideology.

• The centre of Maharashtra Dharma was Pandharpur and the God around whose

Maharashtra Dharma revolves was Vithoba, a local God. The followers of Vithoba

formed a new sect that was the Varkari sect.

• Namdeva was supposed to be a bridge between Maharashtra Dharma and Bhakti

movement in North India.

• One important exponents of Maharashtra Dharma was Gyandeva. He composed a

commentaryon Bhagavad Gitainthe Marathilanguage knownas 'Gyaneshwari Gita'.

• Some other important saints associated with this sect were Namdeva, Eknath,

Tukaram.

• Maharashtra Dharmawasdifferentfrom other Vaishnavasectsasit advocatedfor the

eradication of social differences between high and low born in society.

• In this way, a common Maratha identity to the people was given.
• So unconsciously Maratha saints laid the foundation of the future Maratha state as

they encouraged the process of human capital formation for the promotion of a

common political cause.

• In the 17 th century, Saint Ramdas Samartha emerged.
• He was Shivaji's teacher as well.
• He laid the foundation of the Dharkari sect.
• The emphasis of this sect was the assimilation between spiritual and

mundane life.

• So gradually Maharashtra Dharma evolved from a Shahishnu Dharma (a tolerant

religion)toa Jayishnu Dharma (Asectforconquest).Thuswasprepared abasisforthe

future Maratha state.

Bhaktism in Eastern India

In Eastern India Bhaktism was influenced by Siddha and Nath saints.

• Early exponents of Bhakti ideas in Bengal were Jayadeva and Vidyapati.
• Jayadeva composed a famous text 'Geet Govinda' in Sanskrit.

■ This text focused on the relationship between Radha and Krishna and

presented this relationship in a very erotic manner.

• Vidyapati carried Bhakti tradition and composed his text in the Maithili

language.

• Likewise, one of the earliest Bhakti saints was Chandidas in Bengal.
• But the most important was Chaitanya.
• He popularised Krishna Bhakti in Bengal and created such a deep impact on

the mind of the people that he was presented as the reincarnation of Lord

Krishna.

• It was Chaitanya who introduced Kirtana (devotional song). So he brought

Bhakti to the moment of emotional ecstasy.

• In Assam, Sankardeva was also a Bhakti saint.
• In Assam Bhakti, Radha didn't play a significant role.
• Likewise, in place of young Krishna, Bala Krishna (Childhood) became a major

theme of Bhaktism.

Contribution of Saguna Bhakti :-

1. Although it is true, Saguna Bhakti made a compromise with the Varna system but at least

they tried to soften the rigour of the Varna system.

1. Even in Saguna Bhakti, we can underline the element of protest against Brahmanic

orthodoxy and elite norms. For example, Maharashtra Dharma reflected popular

consciousness. Likewise, in Krishna Bhakti, the existing social norms have been challenged.

1. In the cultural field, Vaishnava Bhakti made a larger contribution. In one sense, Bhaktism

became a majortheme in contemporary literature, architecture, music,dance, painting, etc.

• Support for local dialects like Hindi, Awadhi, Braj Bhasha, Bengali, Marathi, etc.
• Saguna Bhakti encouraged temple cult so the rare example of temple architecture

is associated with Saguna Bhakti.

• Sankritana system introduced by Chaitanya, devotional songs of Mira, Dhrupada

singing of Swami Haridas, made a rare contribution to Indian music. In one sense, it

was Bhaktism which prepared the way for the development of Hindustani music in

India.

Limitations of Saguna Bhakti -

• Through accepting caste division and temple cult, Saguna Bhakti accepted the

Brahmanic world view and it strengthened the position of Brahmanism in socio-

religious life of India.

• In one sense, the resurgence of Saguna Bhakti overpowered Nirguna Bhakti in North

India where Nirguna Bhakti had so far continued to promote some sort of social

radicalisation.

Women Bhaktas and a note of protest -

Bhaktism is supposed to be a movement that advocated for the creation of an egalitarian

society but on observing sincerely we find that while some saints raised the caste issue and

opposed the caste system but simultaneously they neglected the issue of women's

exploitation.

• But in the course of the Bhakti movement, some women Bhaktas emerged.
• David Kingsley asserts that for them it became difficult to reconcile their love

for the lord and perform their worldly duties.

• So in one sense, the rise of women Bhaktas symbolises a protest against the

drudgery of domestic life.

• We come to know about some important women Bhakta such as Lalded/Laleshwari

of Kashmir.

• She was a dedicated Shaivite.
• She opposed all sorts of social taboos and religious ritualism.
• Ideologically she came close to the rishi sect (a Sufi sect) in Kashmir. Nuruddin

Rishi was highly influenced by the spiritual perfection of Lalded.

• On the one hand, Lalded became a symbol of protest against the male

dominance of society; on the other in association with the Rishi sect and its

exponent Nuruddin, she also became a symbol of Hindu-Muslim amity.

• As in Rajasthan, Mirabai was associated with the same symbol of social protest.
• Shelostherhusbandatayoungagethenalsolostherfather-in-law,Maharana

Sanga, as well after the battle of Khanwa.

• Along with a sense of loneliness, she also felt a sense of being victimised as a

result of domestic violence.

• It was from the earlier phase she was indulging in Krishna Bhakti but later she

became a complete Bhakti saint. She was a symbol of social rebellion. This

phenomenon can be ascertained even on the basis that even in earlier phases

shedidn'tenjoyrespect among Rajasthaniwomenwhotookherasthebreaker

of social norms.

• Mahadevi Akka was a Bhakti saint from the Karnataka region.
• She also became a symbol of women's protest against male dominance in

society. In this way, women Bhakta gave a new dimension to the Bhakti

movement.

Historiography of the Bhakti Movement

Bhakti proved to be the largest cultural movement in India. Almost every part of India was

touched by it and it made its presence felt for a long time i.e. 1000 years. So it is very natural

that there should be some controversy among scholars in specifying its nature.

• Earlier R.G. Bhandarkar, while making a study of Bhaktism, tried to find out its

indigenous roots.

• In other words, he linked Bhaktism to the earlier religious tradition of India.
• R.C. Zaehner tried to link it to the influence of Islam.
• Likewise, some other scholars, such as Yusuf Hussain, divided Bhaktism into two

phases -

• 1. Starting from the 4 th - 5 th century to the 12 th century, when Bhaktism was

an individual perception.

• 2. Then, from the 13 th century to the 16 th century, when Bhaktism became a

religious creed after an interaction with Islam.

• Some scholars tried to prove that bhakti was an outcome of the desperation of the

lower castes. For them, it was an expression of social protest.

• They were caught between Devil and Deep Blue Sea.
• Ontheonehand,theywereexploitedbyhigher-caste Hindusandonthe other,

they were unable to link themselves to the cruel world view given by the

Turkish ruling class.

• So they moved towards Bhaktism for emotional support.
• Other scholars like Irfan Habib interpret Bhakti in relation to craft and caste.
• In fact, he emphasised the point that Nirguna saints promoted new crafts

through delinking relations between craft and castes.

• Another interpretation about this movement is that it was a reaction of caste-ridden

Hindu society against the challenge of Islam.

Conclusion

Considering different views about the nature of the Bhakti movement we come to the point

that it wasn't uniform in nature rather it was polyphonic in nature.

• In fact, it encompassed within itself varied and sometimes even mutually

contradictory elements.

• We can very well underline its multifaceted nature when we come to know that on

the one hand, it represented elite elements on the other popular elements.

• Likewise, it also symbolises the assimilation between Brahmanic orthodoxy and

popular revolt.

• Apart from that, at some places it appeared to be a bit insensitive to women but at

other places, it represented women's protest also in the form of devotion of Lalded

and Mirabai.

• Furthermore, Bhaktism on the one hand strengthened the position and power of the

ruling class, on the other hand, it represented the revolt of regional elements against

the centralised power in the form of Maratha and Sikh movement.

So, while making the study of Bhakti, we need to be cautious about generalisations.

Sufism

• The term 'Sufism' came into use for the first time in the 19 th century. Earlier, it was

known as 'Tasawwuf'.

• Sufism originated from the term Safa or Suffa, which means sacred. Safa also means

a coarse blanket made of wool. It also symbolises a rejection of luxurious life.

• So far as the term 'suffa' is concerned it symbolized a religious place outside of the

mosque.Onthissuffa,saintssatandperformedmeditation.Theywereknownas Sufi.

• Sufism emerged in the Islamic world in the 10 th century, when on the one hand there

wasthe decline of the Islamic empire, and on theother hand there wasthe rise of the

Turkish monarchy.

• This period was marked by a transition of values in the Islamic world.
• It was a time when power, wealth and influence had completely

overshadowed the original values of egalitarianism, love and rule by the

consent of the governed.

• The new generation of Muslim youth was deeply attracted to a luxurious life.
• So, Sufism represented a spiritual reaction against this social decadence.
• The Quran itself, provides the basis to Sufi ideas. In fact, the Quran had two different

types of interpretations.

• First was the Shariyat, presented as the orthodox interpretation;
• At the same time the other interpretation was the Tariqat. It gives a liberal

interpretation of the Quran. So, it was Tariqat which prepared the basis for

mystical ideas of Sufism.

• Initially, Sufism was not accepted in the Islamic world as there were two important

differences between orthodox Islam and Sufism.

• Firstly, according to orthodox Islam, the relationship between Allah and the

common man is just like a master and slave, while Sufismbelieved in monistic

ideas and talked about unity and equality of god and soul.

• Likewise, orthodox Islam and ulemas gave primacy to faith while Sufism

believed in the tradition of mutazil (reasoning).

• It is on the issues mentioned above that tension continued between the two.
• Eg. In 10 th century CE, a Sufi saint Mansur-bin-Hallaz declared himself to be

Anhalq (unity of god and soul). He was awarded the death sentence.

• Later in the 12 th century a saint Al-Gazzali made Sufism acceptable in Islamic world

by bringing an important change in its ideas.

• Hedeclaredthat Allahandhismerits can'tberealizedonlythroughreasoning

but also through faith.

• Although it was an attack on the tradition of Mutazil and ultimately proved

costly to the Islamic world, but during this period, the conflict between

orthodox Islam and Sufism ceased for time being.

• Sufismissupposedto have originated in Iran,then spread to otherpartsof the world.
• Right from the time of Turkish conquest of Punjab under Ghazani, Sufi saints started

to travel towards India.

• The first Sufi saint who came to India was Sheikh Al-Hujwiri or Data Ganj

Baksh. He came to India during the period of Mahmud Gazani. He composed

'Kashf-ul-Mahjoob', a famous text.

• Following the invasion of Ghori, Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti moved to India and built his

Khanqah at Ajmer. After his death his Khanqah became a Dargah and a pilgrimage

centre. Several other scholars and Pirs rushed towards India due to the Mongol

Menace.

• One of Chisti's disciples was Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar. He established his

Khanqah at Ajodhan in Punjab. He became a famous saint and by his period

the Chisti sect became fully established in India.

• Later there appeared two important Chisti saints, Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya

and Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Dehlavi.

• Nizamuddin created a wide band of followers. He came in touch even with

Hindu Yogis and appropriated the Yoga method. Yogis of his age referred to

him as a Siddha (perfect Yogi).

Why did the Chisti sect gain in popularity in comparison to others?

• The Chistis maintained relations with the common people but avoided contact with

the ruling class.

• Chisti saints adopted local languages like Awadhi, Punjabi, Urdu and Deccani and

expressed their spiritual experience through popular stories from Hindu houses.

• Sufi saints came in touch with lower strata of the society e.g. Nizamddin Auliya

contacted Nathpanti Yogis.

Other Sufi Sects-

• Another important Sufi sect was the Suhrawardi sect. Its founder was Bahauddin

Zakariya.

• Apart from the Suhrawardi sect there were some other sub-sects as well e.g. Sattari,

Firdausi, Naqshbandi, Qadiri etc.

• According to Abul Fazal, there were a total 14 Sufi sub-sects which worked in India.

Sufi Ideology:

• The objective of Sufismwas to make Ruh (Soul)free from earthlybonds. In the course

ofitsjourneyto God,Ruhhastocross 7 valleysorinspiritualterms,sevenlevels.Then

the soul would come to manifest god.

• Under Sufism some important concepts are Wahadat-ul Wajood (Unity of Being),

Wisal-i- Yaar (sense of loss due to separation from the beloved), Pir/ Haq (teacher/

highest reality),Murid (disciple),Dayra(spiritualterritory),Wali (spiritualsuccessor of

Pir) and Fanah (self-annihilation).

• Other articles of faith include Dargah/ Mazar (tomb of a Sufi Saint), Ziyarat

(Pilgrimage), Futuh (unsolicited gift), Urs (death anniversary of a Sufi saint), Qawwali

(devotional songs), Raksh (dance), Sama (musical gathering) and Hala (state of

ecstasy).

Contribution of Sufism:-

• It was Sufism which provided a social basis to Islam in India.
• The people in India were having bad memory for invasions from Muslim army.
• So, it was Sufism that gave an ointment to the wound of Indians. So in one

sense it was Sufism due to which Muslim rule in India became acceptable.

• Sufi saints even worked as a critic of government policy. In this way they worked as a

pressure-group.

• Elite Muslim youth was much attracted to the luxuries of life. So Sufi saints

through criticising luxurious life infused some moral values in them.

• Sufism also contributed to the economic field.
• As Sufi saints settled in interior regions or forests and built a Khanqah.
• So very soon devotees started going there, the forest was cleared and

agriculture developed there.

• Moreover, these places developed as the Kasba or town in course of time.
• Likewise, Sufism encouraged trade and commerce as well.
• Infact, Sufi Khanqah became a meeting place for merchants.
• Furthermore, through donations, vast wealth was accumulated in a Sufi

khanqah and the khanqah started to invest capital in merchants' business.

• In the cultural field, Sufism made a great contribution.
• It promoted Indian languages like Awadhi and Panjabi.
• By telling stories from the houses of Hindus, it promoted the composite

culture of India.

• It made a great contribution to music i.e. Gazal and Kawwali are the most

important forms of music developed by Sufism.

■ Md. Gauss was the teacher of Tansen.

• Above all, Sufi saints tried to mitigate the cruel behaviors of orthodox Islam on

Hindus.

• Eg. For orthodox Muslims, the term 'Kafir' meant non- believer but Sufi saints

changed its meaning. For them it means beloved.

Vijayanagara Empire

Background:

• In c. 1334 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq marched to suppress a rebellion in Malabar.

But, plague struck his camp. Rumours spread that the Sultan had perished along with

thousands of others.

• Immediately, all the southern units of the Empire viz. Malabar, Telangana, Kampil etc.

revolted. At this point, Tughlaq decided to move back to Delhi.

• Some of the old kingdoms survived and some emerged after the collapse of Tughlaq

rule over the South, viz. Hoysalas of Mysore, Valema rulers of Warangal, Reddis of

Telangana and Sultan of Madurai etc.

• All these powers fought and aligned with each other as it suited them. The

stage was set for the rise of two formidable powers in Peninsular India-

Vijayanagara Empire and Bahmani Kingdom.

• There is a consensus that Harihar and Bukka laid the foundation of Vijayanagara

Empire in c. 1336 CE. However, their origin story has some variations.

• A popular opinion is that they had served under the state of Warangal. When

it fell to the Tughlaqs, they moved to Kampil.

• They were captured, converted and sent to Delhi when Kampil fell, too.
• However, MBT sent them back to consolidate the Sultanate control over

Kampil.

• Here, they deepened their roots and unfurled the banner of revolt when the

suitable opportunity presented itself.

• Their association with Musunuri Kapaya Nayak and a Hindu monk Vidyaranya (who

allegedly brought them back into the fold of Hinduism) and some early policies of this

upstart kingdom gave this independence project a tinge of Hindu revivalism.

• But, we can clearly see that both, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdoms, were the

result of regional assertion against imperial subjugation.

Political History of Vijayanagara Empire

Sangama Dynasty

• Harihar of Sangama dynasty was crowned in c. 1336 CE. He was followed by his

brother Bukka I in c. 1356 CE.

• A new capital Vijayanagara was set up ostensibly on the advice of Vidyaranya

during this period.

• The struggle for Raichur doab started as early as c. 1356 CE when Raichur fell to the

Bahamanis.

• Thewarfarebetweentwosideswasfrequentwhichhaditsrootsinthe ancient

history of this geographical area.

• During this period, first the Hoysala kingdom and later the Madurai Sultanate (till c.

1377 CE) were incorporated into the Empire.

• Having reached peak expansion in the South, Vijayanagara embarked on the

expansion in the West and North-East under Harihar II.

• He snatched Belgaum and Goa from Bahamanis.
• He also sent an expedition to northern Sri Lanka.
• The struggle for the Doab area renewed under Deva Raya I.
• But, he lost to the Bahamani Sultan, Firuz Shah Bahamani (c. 1397-1422 CE).

He had to cede some territory in the doab, pay war indemnity and marry a

daughter to Firuz Shah.

• Later, Deva Raya aligned with Warangal to split the Reddi Kingdom between

the two. This brought the Warangal out of the alliance with Bahamani

Kingdom. Consequently, Deva Raya I inflicted a shattering defeat on the Firuz

Shah Bahaman and annexed almost the entire Doab.

• Also, Deva Raya I dug a canal to meet the drinking water needs of his capital.

This canal and one other on Haridra River, were used for irrigation purposes

also.

• Deva Raya II inducted 2000 Muslim archers in his army and gave them Jagirs.
• Accordingto Ferishta, this was in addition to the 10000 Muslims already in the

service of Vijayanagara army.

• According to Nuniz, the kings of Sri Lanka, Quilon, Pegu, Tennasserim (Burma)

and Malaya paid tribute to Deva Raya 2 nd.

■ Sri Lanka was invaded a number of times.

• But, it is doubtful whether Vijayanagara was powerful enough in the Indian

Ocean to extract tribute from Malaya and Burma.

• This possibly means that these states wanted to maintain friendly relations

with the Vijayanagara Empire and sent lavish gifts.

• Thedeath of Deva Raya II wasfollowedbycivil war.Thegeographicalauthorityofhis

successors shrank considerably as many feudatories assumed independence.

Saluva Dynasty

• The last ruler of the Sangama dynasty was overthrown by the Saluva Narsimha in c.

1485, laying the foundation of the Saluva dynasty. Narasimha was originally the

governor of Chandragiri.

• The Saluva kings restored order in the Empire. After them, came the Tuluva dynasty

in c. 1505 CE.

Tuluva Dynasty

Krishna Deva Raya

• Krishna Deva Raya (c.1509-1530),the greatest of Vijayanagara Kings,belongedto this

dynasty.Hegainedallaroundvictories,patronisedart&culture andbrought military

and administrative reforms.

• He had to deal with internal problems and external problems, viz. the Deccani

state, Orissa, Portuguese etc.

• By this point, Portuguese had started to harass the small coastal feudatory

states of Vijayanagara into making concessions.

• Krishna Deva Raya defeated both Orissa state and Bijapur separately. He ousted

them both from the Raichur doab.

• However, unlike Cholas, he did not build a strong navy and largely ignored the

Portuguese threat to the trade of Peninsular India.

• The Portuguese possibly gave him a monopoly over the supply of horses.
• Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller, has given a very positive account of his

personality.

Decline of the Vijayanagar Empire

• Some chaos followed his rule. He was succeeded by Achyuta Rai and Sadasiva Raya,

consecutively.

• Rama Raya, the prime minister of Sadasiva Raya, played the Deccan states against

each other.

• He concluded a pact with the Portuguese to deny horses to the Bijapur state.
• He attacked Bijapur in alliance with Golconda and Ahmednagar in c. 1543.
• Then, he sacked Ahmednagar in alliance with Bijapur.
• But, he humiliated his allies who in turn patched up their differences.
• Four of them united and defeated the Vijayanagara Kingdom in the battle of

Talikota, c. 1565 CE.

• Hampi, the Vijayanagara capital, was sacked. But, the kingdom lingered on for

almost 100 years more while shrinking rapidly.

Aravidu Dynasty

• Rama Raya's brother, Tirumal Raya, and the King Sadasiva fled to Penugonda.
• Gradually, Tirumal Raya retook some parts of the erstwhile empire and

established order. Tirumala Raya led the foundation of the Aravidu dynasty in

• 1570 CE.

• One of his successors, Venkat II shifted the capital to Chandragiri. He unsuccessfully

tried to stem the rot and prevent further disintegration.

• Gradually, the subordinate Nayaks of Mysore, Tanjore, Madurai and Bednur

etc.becameindependentduring the 17th centuryand the Vijayanagara Empire

faded into insignificance.

• Much of its territory was absorbed by Golconda and Bijapur.

Administration

• Due to constant warfare, the military aspect of the kingdom was emphasised and it

shaped the politico-administrative structure of the Vijayanagara Empire.

• Though the institutions of Vijayanagara administration evolved locally, they had

imprints of North India.

King

• The King, called Raya, was an autocratic head of state, who gained legitimacy on

account of his public works.

• Kingship was hereditary, though revolts and coups were common.
• The king was supposed to rule according to the Dharmashastras and local traditions.
• A king was supposed to look after the interest of people.
• Inhisworkonpolity,Krishna Deva Rayaenjoinsthata Kingshouldprotectgood

and punish evil as far as possible.

• Nothing should escape his due justice and he should tax his subjects

moderately.

• The King was assisted by a council of ministers and high ranking officials.
• There was another council which consisted of provincial governors, Nayakas,

Nigam representatives and other men of influence.

• But, the King was not bound by their advice.
• Princes could be enrolled into administration so as to gather experience.

Provincial Administration

• Provincial administration had geographical and historical variations.
• In the peripheral areas like the Tamil country and coastal areas, local chiefs were

allowed to rule.

• However,theroyaladministrationmaintainedawatchoverthemandtheyhad

to pay regular tributes to the emperor.

• The Kingdom was divided into Rajyas/Mandalam, headed by the Pradhans. Their

number must have varied with the expansion and contraction of the empire.

• Earlier, mostly the members of the royal family were Pradhans, but later, these posts

went more to the military aristocrats. They were quite autonomous.

• They could issue coins in their own name.
• They could maintain their own militia.
• They were authorised to levy new and abolish old taxes.
• These governors had to send a fixed amount of revenue to the centre.
• Kollam/ Valnadus were equivalent to the districts.
• These were divided into Nadus, which in turn were subdivided into a group of villages

known as 'Melagrama' or 'Sthala'.

• 'Ur' (village) was the smallest unit.
• The concept of Rajyas, as an administrative and revenue unit, vanished by the time

Nayaka system became entrenched under the rule of Krishna Dev Raya.

Nayankara System:

• Constant warfare on all its sides made the Vijayanagara state militaristic and feudal.

The Nayakara system should be evaluated in this context.

• It was an administrative innovation of the Vijayanagara state.
• According to some historians, Nayaks were originally military officers. Though, some

believe that these were the Zamindars.

• Eventually, Nayaks turned into a strong military-aristocratic class, which was difficult

to subjugate at times.

• Nuniz and Paes have left a detailed account of this system.
• The state used to allot 'Amaram' land to the Nayaks.
• In turn, they had to administer their area, pay a certain amount of revenue to

thestateandmaintainacertainnumberof troops- elephants,cavalry,infantry

etc.

• The Nayaks were different from a typical provincial governor, in that they were not

transferable. They were more like feudal lords.

• They were more autonomous.
• The office of a Nayak was hereditary.
• The big Nayaks were called 'Amarnayakas' and smaller Nayaks were called 'Palaigar'.
• Amarnayakas were supposed to maintain two representatives - military and political

• in the royal court.

Control

• Theoretically, the state could take back their land. But, this was rare in practice.
• The Vijayanagara state maintained a monopoly over the distribution of horses, so as

to control these Nayaks.

• Later, an official named 'Mahamandaleshwara' was appointed to monitor their

movement during the reign of Achyuta Raya.

• However, all these measures were not sufficient. Nayakas always remained a

challenging centrifugal force for the Kings of Vijayanagara.

Ayagar System:

• The local self-government institution of the Chola period had declined up to this

time.

• The responsibilities of village committees were taken over by a group of 12 officials.
• They were paid in land grants.
• Their post was hereditary and it could be bought and sold.
• This whole system was called the Ayagar system.

Revenue Administration:

• The main sources of the royal income were the revenue from crown land

(Bhandarvada), tributes from the Nayaks, revenue from provincial governors and

tolls on goods etc.

• Other than that, houses, factories, occupations and herds etc. were taxed.
• Even marriages were taxed.
• Krishna Deva Raya had decreed that the 1/4 th of the revenue had to be spent on the

court, 1/2 nd on the army and the 1/4 would go to the treasury.

• Sometimes, a criticism is that the Vijayanagara state levied too many taxes.
• But, given the all-around prosperity reflected in the sources, it is natural that

the state would seek a part of it.

• Also, the number of taxes may be more but their rates were lower. And, the

state was adequately focused on public welfare.

Q: Was the foundation of Vijayanagara Empire a result of Hindu resistance?

Answer:

• Vijayanagara Empire was the product of a cultural reaction to the Delhi Sultanate.
• Harihar and Bukka took the help of Hindu revivalist movement of Kapaya

Nayaka to complete their independence project.

• They were also associated with a Hindu monk Vidyaranya.
• During the early stages, Bukka I appealed to the Hindu scholars and artists

from all around to come to the Vijayanagara Empire so as to give a Hindu

identity to this state.

• Often, the violence between Bahamanis and Vijayanagara took a bloody

religious turn.

• But, the claim of Hindu revival is rhetorical and not substantive.
• There were no separate policies for the Hindu and Muslim subjects of the

empire.

• Mosques flourished during this period.
• A large number of Muslim soldiers were enrolled into the Vijayanagara army.
• Muslim merchants were quite active in this kingdom and the Arab merchants

dominated the overseas trade.

• While applying the Rajamandala principle, secular considerations alone

prevailed. Vijayanagar's earliest enemies were the Hoysalas, who were great

patrons of Hindu temples.

• When Gajapatis of Orissa occupied parts of the Vijayanagara kingdom, they

aligned with the Bahamani kingdom to oust them.

• Hindu Warangal was aligned with Bahamanis against Vijayanagara for a very

long time.

• Vijayanagara architecture borrowed freely from the Indo-Islamic architectural

tradition.

• Abovefactsareenoughtoconvinceusthat the Vijayanagara Empirewasageo political

entity with a separate cultural identity. It was not a Hindu revivalist state. It was a

reaction to the exploitative intrusion of Delhi Sultanate into the region.

Nature of the Vijayanagara state:

• The nationalist historiography led by Nilkantha Shashtri, which emphasised

centralisation remained unchallenged for a long time.

• Later, Burton Stein, rather unconvincingly, tried to apply the 'Segmentary State

Model' to the Vijayanagara Empire.

• Here,hetriedtoseparatetheritualheadofthestatefromtheactualsovereign

authority of an area.

• He opined that there were many segments of power which were disjointed

from each other.

• The King did not control the far off region with the help of bureaucracy and

army, rather with the help of religion and rituals.

• An example was cited that the annual nine day Dussehra festival in the

Vijayanagaracapitalwasnotpresided overbythe Brahminpriestsbut the King

himself performed the rituals.

• TV Mahalingam calls it a feudal state and compares it with European feudalism.
• European feudalism chained the entire society together in the link of sub-

infeudation by smaller and smaller land tenures and fealty to the immediate

superior lord.

• Whereas, the Nayakara system only bonded Nayaks with the King.
• King gave them revenue assignments in return for certain responsibilities.
• Though these Nayaks could lease out their land to smaller Nayaks,which looks

like sub-infeudation, the concept of fealty by the small land holders and

cultivators to the Nayaks is absent in the Nayakara system.

• A closer readingofthe accountsofforeigntravellersand the Vijayanagara inscriptions

by Karashima and Subbayaralu tells us that the Vijayanagara state was essentially

feudal.

• Karashima says that the strength of Vijayanagara state's control over the

Nayaks bringsitsfeudalism closer to the 'Tokugawa feudalism' of Japan,more

than the European feudalism

• Herman Kulke calls it 'military feudalism'.
• Burton Stein himself modified his views in his book, 'Vijayanagara', in 1989 CE. He

said that the Vijayanagara administration was based on the patrimonial bureaucracy

model.

We can conclude from the above discussion that the Vijayanagara state was not centralised

but it was a feudal state due to the presence of the Nayak class.

Causes for the disintegration of Vijayanagara Empire:

Vijayanagara was created as well as destroyed by the same set of factors.

• It was surrounded by enemies. So, it could never reorient from being a military state

to becoming a development oriented state.

• Its essential character was feudal under the overall 'Nayakara-Palaigar-

Ayagara' set up.

• These military aristocrats were a headache for all the rulers and they easily

broke into civil wars when the centre became weak.

• Their deep rooted vested interests prevented the evolution of long lasting

politico-administrative institutions that could embed the name of

Vijayanagara kings into the popular mind for centuries.

• The military-feudal state consumed all the surplus.
• R.S.Sharmasaysthat Vijayanagarastateshowednoenthusiasmformodernityunlike

their contemporary European rulers, e.g. Henry, the navigator, of Portugal.

• Barring its religious tolerance, its essential character was still medieval.
• According to C. V. Vaidya, it was not possible to establish an eternal state as the state

failed to set up robust mercantile processes.

• Mercantilism was the order of the day in the world during this period.
• The policy to allow the Portuguese to entrench themselves on the western

coast, reduced its reputation as well as profits from overseas trade.

• Duetoitsintensefocusonpatronisingart,literatureandarchitecture,thestatespent

a lot of wealth on these narrow groups instead of commissioning durable public

welfare works.

• Nuniz says that the peasants ended up giving as much as 80% of their

production to different agencies.

• As long as Vijayanagara could keep its enemies from uniting, it sustained. But, it all

changed in the battle of Talikota which ended the glory of Vijayanagara.

• However, the state lingered for the next hundred years or so.
• The capital was first moved to Penugonda by Tirumal of the Aravidu dynasty.

He regained some portions of the erstwhile state back and established law &

order.

• Venkat IIwasthelastrulerwhotriedtorevivetheempirefromhisnewcapital,

Chandragiri.

• However, during the 2 nd half of the 17 th century, regional chiefs asserted

themselves and much of the remaining territory was absorbed by Golconda

and Bijapur.

Foreign Travellers

During the reign of Devraya I, NICCOLO CONTI (Italian traveller) visited Vijayanagara.

• Hehasgivenadetailedaccountofthecityof Vijayanagar,whichaccordingtohim,was

"as large and as beautiful as Rome".

• He has also commented on the prevalence of Sati.

The Persian traveller ABDURR RAZZAQ visited India during the reign of Dev Raya II. He first

visited the Zamorin of Calicut and then went to the Vijaygnara empire.

• He was a historian and scholar from Herat, sent to Vijayanagar as an ambassador of

the ruler of Khurasan, Shah Rukh Mirza, to the court of Deva Raya II.

• He has described the time period of Deva Raya II in his travelogue, 'Matla-us-Sadain

wa Majma-ul-Bahrain'.

• He specially describes the wealth and splendour of the capital. He vouches that

Vijayanagar's market was ten times the size of Herat's market.

• He says Vijayanagar was the largest and the most well provisioned city in the

world.

• Accordingtohim,tradersofpreciousmetalsandjewelsflockeditsstreets and

bazaars, and the market sold every commodity imaginable.

• He mentions that the Vijayanagara treasury was filled with molten gold

nuggets.

• According to him, Vijayanagara had seven fortification walls within which there were

provisions of all year water supply and agriculture fields.

• He mentions that the Sati system prevailed in Vijayanagara.
• According to him, state derived taxation income from prostitution and brothels.
• He pegs the strength of Vijayanagara army at 11 lakh and counts the number of ports

at 300.

During Krishna Deva Raya's reign, 2 Portuguese travellers visited the empire-

● Durate Barbosa -

• He describes the ship building and sati system.
• He mentions that diamond and precious stones were imported from Pegu and

silk was imported from China, whereas, black pepper came from Malabar

coast.

● Domingo Paes

• He was received by Krishnadeva Raya at his court.
• He has described the beauty of Vijayanagar and the king's personal attributes.

According to him, Krishna deva raya was a warrior king, whose body was

covered in battlescars.

During the reign of Achyuta Raya, the Portuguese horse trader, FERNANDO NUNIZ, visited

the empire.

• He has mainly described the social and cultural aspects of Vijayanagara in his

travelogue.

• He says that there were women scribes, wrestlers, astronomers, musicians

and fortune tellers in Vijayanagara.

• He also mentions the social evils like dowry, Sati and child marriage which

prevailed in the Vijayanagara society.

• He praises the Brahmins of Vijayanagara as honest people who were good

scribes also.

• Accordingto Nuniz,therulersof Quilon,Sri Lanka,Pulicat,Pegu,Tennasserim

and Malaya paid tribute to the Vijayanagara King.

• Healsodescribes the Nayankarasystemandsaysthattherateoflandrevenue

was 1/10 th.

Economy

The Vijayanagara economy was similar to the Chola economy.

• Economic administration was shaped according to the mercantile conditions. The

coastal areas were dotted with ports and cities. Often, cities were centres of

commercial, cultural, religious and political activities.

• Its main income sources were agriculture and commerce, the former being the main

sourceofincome.Thetaxranged from 1/4 to 1/6,dependinguponthequalityof land.

• Irrigation was an important source of income for the state.
• It wascalled 'Dashavanda' in the Tamil area and 'Kattukadage' in the Kannada

area.

• Even temples and Amaranayakas encouraged the extension of irrigation to

the semi-arid areas.

• In the Karnataka area, the Kattukadage rights were especially mentioned in

the inscriptions so as to protect the income of the concerned individual.

• Land was divided into three parts-
• 'Amaram' land, which was biggest of the three groups, went to the Nayak;

'Bhandarvada' land was the crown land and a part of income from this land

went to the maintenance of forts and

• The tax free 'Manya' land was granted to the temples, Brahmans and Mathas.
• A majority of people lived in the rural areas which were fairly self-dependent.
• Temples played an important role in rural life.
• Temples had amassed huge land and acted as centres of socio- economic life.
• Artisans operated in guilds.
• Theireconomicimportance gavethempoliticalinfluenceinthecourtand their

leaders had the ears of important political figures.

• Items of trade
• According to 'Amuktamalyada', the main items of import were horses,

precious stones, sandalwood and pearl etc.

• According to Nuniz, Vijayanagara state was importing 13000 horses annually.
• Commodities like rice, sugar, coconut, dyes, sandalwood, black pepper, ivory,

silk and printed cotton were exported mainly to Persia, Africa, China and Sri

Lanka.

• The level of monetization was high as the trade was mainly in coins.
• Hence, the Vijayanagara state had many mints.
• Also, the state made sure that the foreign trade did not slip into the hands of rival

states.

• Thus, they made concessions to foreigners like the Portuguese.
• Overall, the internal trade during this period was stable and increased gradually.
• The trade of India during this period invited both envy and admiration of the

foreign travelers.Perhaps,Indiawasintheprocessofbecoming the proverbial

'Golden Bird' during this period.

Society

The society was caste based and hierarchical, however, unlike north India, there was not a

four-fold Varna division, rather the society had Brahmins and Non-Brahmins.

• Brahmins held the supreme position and enjoyed both political power and social

prestige.

• The kings, top officials, ministers, army commanders, etc. were Brahmin.
• Brahmin priests received lightly taxed land grants.
• Educational institutions were completely under their control
• Religious life was characterised by regimented ritualism due to which their

importance increased.

• The Non-Brahmins were divided into the Valangai (right handed) and Idangai (left

handed) castes.

• The Valangai group consisted of castes with an agricultural basis, whereas,
• The Idangai group consisted of castes which were involved in manufacturing,

craft and trading etc.

• The society was not divided along blood relations but on the basis of geography.
• So, it was common that blood relatives living in separate geographical areas

establish marital relations.

• Due to Brahmanical orthodoxy prevalent in the Vijayanagara society, the condition of

women in the Vijayanagara society was no better than north India.

• Child Marriage and Polygamy were common.
• Widow remarriages were considered taboo.

■ However, the rulers encouraged it through tax exemptions.

• Tippadiyal (Sati) was also popular.

■ At the same time, we also find evidence of male Royal bodyguards

jumping onto the funeral pyres of deceased kings.

• Intemples, Devadasiswereheavilyexploitedbuttheconditionof Ganikaswas

far better.

• Although the Varnashrama Dharma system was rigidly observed, the Vijayanagara

kings were remarkably liberal and practical in their outlook.

• Theyreadilypatronisedskilledartisans,workmen,scholarsandpromotedable

administrators and military commanders from all backgrounds, including

Muslims.

• They welcomed Christian missionaries from Portugal.
• They even joined hands with the Golconda Sultanate against the Gajpati

rulers.

Culture

Bukka I invited scholars and artists from all over India to his Kingdom. In the subsequent

centuries, Vijayanagara Empire oversaw further evolution of the Dravida School of

architecture, development of Telugu literature and evolution of new art forms etc.

Architecture

Vijayanagara made special contributions to the Dravida School.

• Now, the temple enclosures became wider.
• The temple walls were painted with themes from epics and Puranas and the lavishly

ornamented Gopurams grew taller as they enclosed more area.

• Kalyan Mandapa was a Vijayanagara addition to the temples, where ceremonial

weddings of the deities were organised.

Another important feature was the profusely decorated pillars.

• A mount with two lofted feet is an impressive sculpture on these pillars.
• Pillars invariably had brackets as their capitals.

Vithhal Swamiand Hazaratemplesarethetwoexamplesofthisperiodwithraisedplatforms,

big assembly halls and pillars.

• Kumbakonam, Kanchipuram, Srirangam, Chidambaram, Tirumala and Vellore etc. are

full of the Vijayanagara era temples.

Secular buildings had features of Indo-Islamic architecture too.

• E.g. The elephant stable at Hampi which had domes and the Lotus Mahal Ruins of

Vijayanagara (modern Hampi) are the witness to the genius of Vijayanagara

architecture.

Vijayanagara architecture was carried forward by the Madurai school in later centuries.

Literature

Vijayanagara kings were great patrons of literature and education and Krishna Deva Raya has

a special place among them.

Sanskrit Literature

• Sanskrit literature was reinvigorated under state sponsorship.
• Under the leadership of Sayanacharya (brother of Vidyaranya), scholars

composed a large number of Sanskrit works including commentaries on the

Vedic corpus.

• Hemadri also wrote a commentary on the Dharmashastras.
• Authors in the regional languages- Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada and Tamil- were also

patronised.

Telugu Literature

• This was also the period of Telugu renaissance, e.g. the gems produced by the

Astadiggaja of Krishna Deva Raya.

• Additionally, a large number of Sanskrit religious and secular literature was

translated into Telugu

■ eg. Tirumal wrote a commentary on the 'Geet Govinda' of Jayadeva.

Malayalam Literature

• The first authentic Malayalam literature, 'Unnuneeli Sandesham' waswritten during

this period, which is based on Kalidasa's Meghadutam.

• Madhav Panikkar translated Bhagavad Gita into Malayalam.

Kannada Literature

• Kannada scholar Madhur wrote, Dharmanathapuran, which is based on the life of

15 th Jain Tirthankar.

• Palkuriki Somnatha wrote many pieces on Virashaivism in Telugu and Kannada.
• 'Karnataka Shabd Anushasan', the Kannada grammar was written during this period.

Tamil Literature

• Except for Tamil, the themes and styles of these works were mostly derived from

Sanskrit literature.

• Jain, Shaivite and Vaishanava saints composed religious literature in Tamil.

Other art forms

• Portuguese writers and Abdur Razzaq have mentioned the talented painters in the

service of Vijayanagara state.

• Lepakshi painting developed during this period.
• Themes from epics were used in this type of painting.
• A large number of portrait sculptures were made during this period.
• The portrait sculpture of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens is found in Tirupati

temple

• A new art form called, 'Yakshgana', developed during this period which mixed both

music and dance.

• It was mostly associated with temples.
• Nambudiri Brahmins developed a new art form, 'Koodiyattam', in which Puranic

stories are told through dance.

• The Vijayanagara period saw Carnatic music evolve into a definite form.
• Purandara Dasa was a renowned proponent of Carnatic music.
• Rudraveena was possibly invented during this period.
• Bharatnatyam was also promoted during this period, primarily as a form of temple

art.

Contribution of Krishna Dev Raya to art and literature:

Duetohiscreativegenius,Krishna Deva Rayawascomparableto Akbar.Despitetheincessant

fighting, he could focus on the creative potential of his empire as his court was decorated

with many scholars and artists.

• He had good command over both Telugu and Sanskrit.
• He continued the earlier tradition of writing commentaries on the Vedas and

other Sanskrit works.

• During his period, Telugu literature came out of the shadow of Sanskrit

literature. His reign was a period of Telugu renaissance.

■ His court had 8 Telugu poets (Astadiggajas) - Allasani Peddana, Nandi

Thimmana,Madayyagari Mallana,Dhurjati,Ayyala-raju,Pingali Surana,

Ramaraja Bhushanudu and Tenali Ramakrishna.

■ These scholars authored amazing masterpieces.

■ His own work, Amuktamalyada, is an epic poem in Telugu which

describes the wedding of Lord Vishnu and Andal, a Tamil bhakti poet.

• He patronised Tamil and Kannada scholars too.
• He composed literature in Sanskrit too.
• He also patronised art and architecture.
• Dravida School of architecture evolved further under his rule, e.g. Hazara

temple and Vithhal temple.

• Duarte Barbosa profusely praises him for his religious tolerance, his sense of justice

and his efficient administration.

Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1687)

Unified Bahmani (1347-1482)

• After Muhammad bin Tughlaq abandoned Daultabad, it was captured by Zafar Khan

alsoknownas Hasan Ganguinc.1345 CE.Hetookthetitle, 'Allauddin Bahaman Shah'

upon founding the Bahmani Sultanate which lasted roughly two centuries.

• He moved his capital to Gulbarga in c. 1347 CE, which was moved again to Bidar in c.

1422 Ce.

• A running theme in the entire history of Bahamani Kingdom is the struggle with

Vijayanagara Empire for the control over Raichur Doab, Krishna-Godavari Delta and

the Konkan coast, especially its ports like Goa and the conflict between Afaqi and

Dakhni nobles.

• Political fortunes kept swinging and the details of individual struggles are not

important from the point of view of historical processes.

Firoz Shah Bahmani

• The brightest star on the Bahmani firmament was the Firuz Shah Bahamani (c. 1397-

1422 Ce).

• He was a polymath who was deft in religion,logic, natural sciences and linguistics etc.
• He was conversant in several languages such as Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Urdu,

Kannada and Telugu.

• He was tolerant of other religions and had personally read both the Old and New

Testament.

• It was during his reign that Gesu Daraz, the famous Chishti Sufi saint

established his Khanqah at Gulbarga.

• Thedeclineof the Delhi Sultanatemeantthatmanylearnedmenmigrated from Delhi

to the Gulbarga.

• Firoz also invited scholars and nobles from Iraq and Iran.
• Manyof these West Asian migrantswere Shiite.Undertheir influence, Persian

culture and Shiite doctrine grew within the Bahmani Sultanate.

• He also inducted a largenumber of Hindus in administration,which possibly acted as

a balance against the influx of foreigners called Afaqis or Gharibs.

• He built an observatory at Daulatabad.
• Having initially defeated Devaraya I, he was later dealt a crushing defeat by a

Warangal-Vijayanagar alliance led by Devaraya I and was forced to abdicate in favour

of his brother Ahmad Shah 'Wali'.

Ahmed Shah Wali

• He conquered Warangal, thus breaking the Vijayanagar-Warangal alliance. Following

this, he shifted the capital to Bidar to better control the newly conquered territory.

• This shifted the balance of power in the favour of Bahamanis.
• They conquered Berar, Khandesh and some parts of the Konkan coast during

the second half of the 15 th century.

• Asaresult,Vijayanagarwasconsiderablyweakened.Theperiodafter Devaraya IIwas

a period of chaos and the frontiers of Vijayanagar shrank on all sides.

• The confusion allowed the Gajapatis of Orissa to move into the Delta region.
• However, he is remembered more for his contribution as sufi saint than as a ruler. He

was a close associate of Gesu Daraz and his death anniversary is jointly celebrated by

both Hindus and Muslims.

Muhammad Gawan

Not much is known about his early life. He gradually rose in the service of the Bahamani

kingdom until he was appointed as 'Wakil-us Sultanat' (Prime Minister) when the new King

Muhammad Shah III was coronated in 1463. He dominated the affairs of the Bahamani

kingdom for the next two decades.

Territorial Expansion

• He aligned with Vijayanagara to defeat the Gajapatis.
• He also made deep inroads into Vijayanagara.
• He annexed the Raichur doab and reached as far as Kanchipuram.
• He was also able to snatch Dabhol and Goa from Vijayanagara.

■ Control over these two ports greatly boosted the external trade.

Internal trade and manufacturing of the Kingdom also grew.

• Gawan had to wage a bitter struggle with Malwa ruler Mahmud Khalji over the

question of Berar.

• In this struggle, he was given active help by the Gujarat rulers.

Internal Reforms and Downfall

• He carried out the administrative reorganisation of the Sultanate by dividing it into 8

provinces 'Taraf/Atrafs'.

• He also strengthened the military by including local Marathas in the army. He

introduced the practice of making land grants to top commanders, thus winning

Maratha loyalty.

• He also introduced the system of survey and measurement for land revenue.
• Apart from opening 'Muqtabs' for elementary education, Gawan also set up a large

Madrasa (college) in Bidar in the traditional Persian style called 'REGISTAN'.

• It wasa three storeybuilding in which a thousand teachers and students could

live.

• Some of the most famous scholars of the time from Iran and Iraq came there

to teach.

• The struggle between the Afaqis and Dakhni nobles was initially calmed by Mahmud

Gawan.

• However, he couldn't bridge the factional gap completely, ultimately falling

victim to it himself.

• The young sultan executed him on trumped up charges.

The strife became only more intense after this and the Bahamani Kingdom soon splintered

into the five Deccan states, out of which, Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmednagar played

important historical roles.

Afanasy Nikitin

• He was possibly the first Russian traveller to come to India. He has described both

Vijayanagar and Bahamani kingdom in the 15 th century.

• Nikitin calls Mahmud Gawan, 'Tuzzar', as Mahmud Gawan held the title of 'Malik-i-

Tuzzar'.

• According to him, the land was very populous and the common people were very

poor. But the nobles lived in great luxury.

• Nikitin was amazed to see the king and the nobles ride on men. Perhaps he

refers to palanquins carried by four to twenty men on special occasions.

• It was his observation that, in India, everyone goes naked. All were barefoot, walked

fast and were strong.

• The intensity of heat possibly made people use scanty clothes. Perhaps this

practice made Nikitin think that they went 'naked'.

• He, however, admits that they wore jewellery and ornaments.
• He has given a rich, but not free from errors, account of contemporary society.

Administration

The Bahamanis imitated the broad administrative structure of Delhi Sultanate. The offices

and departments bear similarity with the ones from Delhi Sultanate.

• However, some new offices were created with time, e.g. Wakil-us-Sultanat (Prime

minister).

• Muhammad I (c. 1358-78 CE) is credited for institutionalizing the administrative

structure.

• The Sultanate was divided into four 'tarafs' with their headquarters at Daulatabad,

Berar, Bidar and Gulbarga.

• Governors (Tarafdars) of different provinces were given different titles.
• Mahmud Gawan tried to reform the administration.
• He tried to issue revenue assignments on the basis of land measurement.
• He also tried to curb the power of the 'tarafdars', who were controlling the

military administration of the province.

• The law of primogeniture gained comparatively more acceptance in the Bahamani

Kingdom than the Delhi Sultanate.

• Throughoutthelifeof Bahamani Kingdom,therewasatusslebetween the Dakhniand

Afaqi nobles over plum posts in the administration.

Economy and Society

• The economy under the Bahamani sultans was prosperous but highly unequal.
• Nikitin has thrown light on the trade and commerce of this period. According

to him, Dabhol port was connected with the other ports of the Indian

subcontinent and Africa.

• Horses, clothes, silk and black pepper etc. were important items of trade.
• Horses were imported from Arabia, Khurasan and Turkistan.
• Indian merchants dominated the inland trade.
• Nikitin highlights the glaring inequality between the nobility and commoners.
• However, the society must have been more differentiated than this binary

classification as the different occupational and ethnic groups must have

occupied different positions in the socioeconomic hierarchy.

• The social outlook of the Bahmani kings was mostly liberal.
• Hindus of all castes, local Muslims, the immigrants from central and west Asia

etc. lived in the kingdom which had a cosmopolitan structure.

• Shia Muslims emerged as a social group due to migration from central Asia.
• Persian, Marathi, Dakhni, Kannada and Telugu etc. were the commonly spoken

languages.

• Hindus were usually not discriminated against.
• There isno solid evidence to suggest that Jizyawasimposed.If it wascollected

at all, then, it was a part of Kharaj.

• Sufis migrated to the Deccan before and during this period in a large number. Sultans

needed their support for legitimacy. Sattariya, Chishti and Qadiri were among the

main Sufi orders.

• Bidar was an important centre of the Qadiria order.
• The Chistisaint Syed Muhammad Gesu Darazmigrated from Delhito Gulbarga

in c. 1402 CE. Firuz Shah granted 'Inam' land for the maintenance of his

'khanqah'.

Successor States (1482-1687)

• Ahmednagar-itwasruledby the Nizam Shahidynasty.In 1601 itwasforcedtoaccept

the Mughal suzerainty by Akbar. It was finally annexed by Shah Jahan in 1636.

• Bidar- it was ruled by the Barid Shahi Dynasty and was absorbed by the Ahmednagar

Sultanate.

• Berar - it was ruled by the Imad Shahi dynasty, and was also absorbed by the

Ahamednagar.

• Bijapur - it was ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty. It was forced to accept the Mughal

suzerainty by the Shah Jahan in 1636 and later annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.

• Golkonda - it was ruled by the Qutub Shahi dynasty and suffered the same fate as

Bijapur. Shah Jahan established Mughal overlordship over it in 1636 and Aurangzeb

annexed it in 1687.

Important personalities of the later phase included

• Ibrahim Adil Shah - He built the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, the largest dome in Asia. He

was also known as Jagatguru due to his religious tolerance, love for knowledge and

music.

• Malik Ambar - originally a slave from Ethiopia named Chapu.
• He was educated and trained in Baghdad, converted to Islam and renamed.
• Hewassoldintotheserviceof Malik Dabir(Royal Scribe)of Ahmednagar under

whom he gained administrative and military experience.

• After the death of his master, he was freed and became a military leader,

raising his own force.

• Mughal aggression towards the Deccan allowed him to quickly rise in power.
• He became the Prime Minister and had his daughter married to the Sultan of

Ahmednagar, becoming the regent and de facto ruler of Ahmednagar.

• He joined hands with the Marathas to successfully resist Mughal

encroachment.

Bahmani - Vijayanagar Struggle

The 14 th century saw the emergence of two powerful Deccani kingdoms.

• Bahamani Sultanate covered the linguistic region of Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. It

was situated to the north of the Vijaynagar Empire.

• The Vijaynagar Empire covered the linguistic region of Telugu, Tamil, Kannada.
• Their proximity led to a number of disputes between the two kingdoms and

their history in rife with incessant warfare. For almost 200 years, they fought

for the control of,

■ The Konkan Coast, including important ports such as Goa and Dabhol

■ Raichur Doab (between the Krishna and the Tunghbadhra)

■ Krishna-Godavari Delta

• During this period, their fortunes shifted constantly. Finally in 1565, the combined

armies of 4 successor states (Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar) defeated the

Vijayanagar Empire, being led by Rama Raya, in the decisive Battle of Talikota/

Bannihatti/ Rakshasa Tagadi.

• The Vijaynagar empire collapsed after this. However, some of its Amara Nayakas

continued to rule independently.

Q: Examine the nature of conflict between the Vijayanagara Kingdom and the Bahamani

Sultanate.

Both, Vijayanagara Empire and Bahamani Kingdom were born almost simultaneously and

started fighting immediately.

• Harihar and Bukka took the help of Hindu revivalist movement of Kapaya Nayaka to

complete his independence project.

• They were also associated with a Hindu monk Vidyaranya.
• Often, the geopolitical contest between the Bahamanis and Vijayanagara took a

bloody religious turn.

• Vijayanagara Kingstriedtocreatetheimageofa Hindustateand the Sultansalso used

religion and religious vengeance as it suited them.

• Richard Eaton calls the Vijayanagara frontier the 'Maginot Line' of the Deccan.

Historiography

• However, it was essentially a geopolitical conflict with historical roots.
• They fought for the control of fertile land and strategic ports, just like the

erstwhile kingdoms of the Peninsular India had fought for the control of

Raichur Doab, Krishna-Godavari Delta and the Konkan Coast.

• Their Rajamandala considerations were purely secular. Once they even aligned with

each other.

• Firuz Shah employed a large number of Hindus in his administration and Vijayanagara

inducted Muslim archers in their army.

• Within their respective kingdoms, there was no considerable favouritism in the

matters of taxation, trade and rights of the subjects.

• Both kingdoms practised their own versions of tolerance.
• Thus, it becomes clear that the Vijayanagar-Bahmani conflict was not a religious

crusadebut religionwascertainlyusedto mobilise the respectivesides more strongly.