Paper 1›Medieval India›The Eighteenth Century

The Eighteenth Century

Rise of the Marathas Different views related to the rise of Marathas as a major power in Deccan towards the middle of the 17 th century

The term "Maratha" originally referred to the speakers of the Marathi language.
In the 17 th century, it emerged as a designation for soldiers serving in the armies of Deccan sultanates.

A number of Maratha warriors, including Shivaji's father, Shahaji, originally served in those armies.

Gradually they emerged as a powerful political entity and by the mid-1660's, Shivaji had established an independent Maratha kingdom. He was crowned as Chhatrapati (sovereign) of the new Maratha kingdom in 1674.

There are different perspectives regarding rise of Maratha as a power, which has been propounded by different historians:

Hindu reaction against policies of Aurangzeb: by Jadunath Sirkar, GS Sardesai, V. V

Joshi

This view focuses on Aurangzeb's conservative religious policy. i.e. anti-Hindu approach, and rise of Marathas as reaction to this.

Shivaji was greatly influenced by the saint Ramdas who guided him onto an orthodox Hindu path.

Shivaji adopted the title 'Haindava dharmodharaka' at the time of coronation.
He also adopted the title of 'Gau Brahman Pratipalak'.
The military campaigns of Shivaji was characterised by the slogan - 'har har mahadev'.

Criticism of this view

Early phase of rise of Marathas under Shahji and Shivaji started before Aurangzeb came to the throne.

This view presents a chronological error

After dealingwith Bijapur and Golconda, the next target of the Marathas were the Nayakas and Deshmukh chiefs, this led to even destruction of temples.

Muslims were employed in Shivaji's state system.
Shivaji didn't not ally with Hindu powers such as Rajputs for rebelling against Mughals.

Titles adopted by Shivaji were general titles adopted by Hindu kings, so this was no departure.

Recent evidence and research have shown that Shivaji did not meet or know Ramdas until late in his life i.e after coronation.

Nationalstruggleforindependenceagainstalien rule(Mughals):by M.GRanade,Raj

Wade

Thisperspectiveviewstheriseof the Marathasasthenascentbeginningof the nationalist sentiment in India.

Geographical isolation of Marathwada region protected it from foreign invasions, fostered a feeling of regional independence among the Marathas. It also made possible, the effective use of guerrilla tactics against the Mughals.

Military confrontation against the Mughals turned the Marathas into hardy warriors and disciplined soldiers.

Criticism of this view

The term foreign has been used in the context of north Indian powers which hardly seems to conform to the notion of nationalistic consciousness.

According to Satish Chardra: In a nationalistic struggle there is a primary condition- existence and role of middle class which is absent here.

Role of Maratha dharma, Marathi language, social cohesion etc:

Maharashtra dharma and the spread of the devotional cult:

Growth of Bhakti Movement fostered a sense of social cohesion and strong sense of brotherhood among the Marathas, leveled social distinctions and discrimination and created homogeneous society.

It provided the base for transforming the Marathas into a community with strong roots which was later grafted into a solid political base by Shivaji.

Common language Marathi:

Useof Marathilanguageby the Bhaktasaintspromotedasenseofunity among the Marathas and social unity paved the way for the rise of the Marathas as a major political force in the area.

Criticism

P V Ranade disputes the view that the rise of Maratha power was caused by Maharashtra Dharma as it is very difficult to establish a direct link between Maharashtra dharma and the rise of Maratha power.

He considered it a myth that there was greater social unity and cohesion in Maratha society which was as much stratified as north Indian society.

For e.g. the word Watandar related to a class of indigenous, hereditary land owners. They were either Brahmins or Kshatriyas by caste. Constituting a caste based and economically dominant aristocracy, they shared the same exploitative tendencies that were displayed by the Mughal jagirdars or zamindars of peasantry.

Shivaji's leadership:

Maraths emerged as a powerful force not before the rise of Shivaji.
He provided bold, dynamic and capable leadership to the Marathas and led them successfully to the attainment of political independence.

Marathas were groomed into a community by Shivaji through his political intelligence and foresight. He transformed them from plundering and

marauding hordes into the most enduring and effective regional power to contest the authority of the Mughals.

Criticism

Discipline in the ranks of the Marathas was more a myth than a reality as can be seen in the policy of plunder and pillage followed by them towards their neighbour, both Hindus and Muslims.

Mughal expansion and pressure in Deccan: by Adrew Wink, Grant Duff:

The expansion of the Mughals in Deccan caused political uncertainty in the Deccan and posed threat to the both Deccani states and Marathas.

The Deccani Sultanates, hard pressed by the Mughals, were unable to check the growing power of the Maratha watandars and some even came to depend on the support of the Marathas against the Mughals.

Valuable military experience gained by the Maraths in course of their campaigns and the administrative experience obtained in the service of the

Deccani Sultanates proved extremely helpful for the Marathas in later years.

The collapse of the Deccani Sultanates and the failure of the Mughals to consolidate their authority there left a political vacuum in the Deccan which the Maraths tried to and succeeded in filling up.

This was the time when Shivaji began to mobilise the Maratha forces and began military adventure.

This view has not been questioned yet but there was perhaps more than just this reason.

Socio-economic factor, Representing Social tension and struggle: by Satish Chandra.

According to Satish chandra:

Maratha society was characterised by a land based hierarchical social structure.

Shivaji curtailed the power of big Deshmukhs, mitigated their abuses and established necessary supervisory authority.

Petty landholders, who were often at the mercy of bigger Deshmukhs benefited from this policy.

It was these petty landholders that became the basis of his strength.

The position of Marathas in the Varna system was ambivalent and as late as the early 19 th century. The Marathas as a whole were not accepted as Kshatriyas by Brahmins.

This scenario resulted in deep ferment within the Maratha society and a trend of upward social mobility emerged.

Shivaji's claim of Kshatriya status at the time of coronation is a
good example of such a trend.
Many social groups relying on Shivaji were motivated by the
prospect of rising in social scale.
Maharashtra Dharma with its stress on egalitarian ideas provided as ideological justification for social mobility by individuals and groups.

Conclusion

Thus, it was not religion or nationalism but political and social factors that provided the basis for the rise of Marathas.

It can be seen as a regional reaction against the centralising tendencies of the Mughal Empire.

The Marathas wanted a large principality for themselves, for which an ideal background was provided by the disintegration of the Nizam Shahi power of Ahmednagar and the introduction of a new factor- Mughals.

Its inherent socio-economic contradictions helped in mobilising the local landed element, which became the basis for political formation. Nature of the Maratha Political System

The nature of political system of Marathas can be divided into three main phases:

Phase I (17 th century): Centralised nature of Maratha political system (under Shivaji)

Centralised state machinery

Shivaji as an absolute ruler with all powers concentrated in his hands.
He was a benevolent despot.

Ashtapradhan

Council of eight ministers appointed by Shivaji:

Peshwa - Prime Minister, headed Ashtapradhan
Amatya - Auditor,
Mantri - Record keeper,
Sachiv - incharge of Royal Secretariat,
Sumant - foreign secretary,
Senapati - commander-in-chief,
Pandit Rao - in charge of Religious affairs,
Nyayadhish - Chief Justice.

All ministers except Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao were required to command armies and lead expeditions. Their functions were purely advisory.

M G Ranade writes that "Like Napoleon, Shivaji in his time was a great organiser and a builder of civil institutions". His system was an autocracy of which he himself was

the supreme head. His administration principles included the welfare of his subjects.

Centralised military

Before Shivaji, the army was made up mostly of part time soldiers who worked their fields for half the year and gave active service during the dry season.

Shivaji introduced a regular standing army under a Commander in Chief known as Senapati.

Navy

Shivajirealisedtheimportanceofbuildinganavyforthepurposeoftradeanddefence against the Europeans.

Forts

Forts occupied an important position in Shivaji's Swarajya.
He appointed Havaldar for their administration, assisted by a Subedar and a Karkhani.
Multiple officials provided checks and balances.

Centralised revenue system

For the purpose of revenue collection and administration, Shivaji divided his kingdom into a number of Provinces, further divided into Parganas and villages formed the lowest unit.

The revenue settlement was based on measurement of land.

Assessment after careful survey of land.
State dues fixed at 30%.

Besides land revenue Shivaji imposed various other taxes, like taxes on

professions,
trade,
social and religious functions.

To establish his supremacy over Deshmukhs, Shivaji proclaimed himself as 'Sardeshmukh' and introduced a tax called Sardeshmukhi.

Legitimacy to power through ideological means

To legitimise his rule, Shivaji claimed Kshatriya status and linked his lineage with the Sisodias.

He also adopted the title 'Kshatriyakulvatamsa' (jewel of the warrior race).

Further, he also adopted titles such as

'Haindav Dharmaodharak' (protector of Hindu Dharma) and
'Gau Brahman Pratipalak' (protector of cows and Brahmins) Phase II (1713 to 1761): Feudal system (under the Peshwas)

Due to the weak successors of Shivaji, Ashtapradhan and the office of Peshwas became hereditary.

Bythe Sangolaagreementof 1750,the Peshwaemergedastherealandeffectivehead of the state and the Chatrapati became a 'Roi Faineant' (do-nothing King).

The centralised state system lost relevance and a feudal polity based on landed aristocracy emerged.

Deshmukhs became important.
Maratha chiefs like Nimbalkar, Holkar, Gaekwad, Bhonsle etc became powerful. They were headed by the Peshwa.

Phase III (From 1761) - Maratha Confederacy

The feudal system which began under the Peshwas, culminated in the Maratha confederacy which comprised of:

Peshwa of Poona
Sindhia of Gwalior
Gaekwad of Baroda
Bhonsle of Nagpur
Holkars of Indore

Although the Peshwa remained the head, in principle, Maratha chiefs like Gaekwad, Holkar, Sindhia, Bhonsle, etc. became almost sovereign.

So, there emerged a number of parallel powers as these chiefs were almost autonomous in their rights, which considerably undermined the powers of Peshwas.

The Maratha Fiscal System

Land revenue: Background:

During Shivaji's reign, the revenue system seems to have been patterned on the system of Malik Ambar.

A new revenue assessment was completed by Annaji Datto in 1679.
Shivaji also strictly supervised the mirasdars, that is, those with hereditary rights in land.

Describing the situation, Sabhasad, who wrote in the 18 th century, says that these sections paid to the government only a small part of their collections.

'In consequence,themirasdars grewand strengthenedthemselves bybuilding bastions, castles, and strongholds in the villages, enlisting footmen and musketeers... this class became unruly and seized the country.'

Shivaji destroyed their bastions and forced them to submit.

Mokasa, jagir and saranjams

Traditionally, in the Maratha territory the terms mokasa, jagir and saranjams were often used interchangeably. However, jagirs were more permanent in nature than mokasa.

They were military tenures though theoretically temporary and were transferableandcouldbeconfiscated.Butinpracticetheyassumedhereditary character.

Officials were largely paid in the form of mokasas or jagirs in lieu of their services.

It is interesting to find the presence of the practice of sub-letting of Jagirs, a feature totally absent in north India.

Mokasadars had dual ranks, Jat and Fauj (parallel to Mughal Zat and Sawar ranks).

Jat denoted personal pay while Fauj was given for the maintenance of the troops.

The revenues were assigned to mokasadars only after deducting sardeshmukhi, chauth, and batai.

Shivajidiscontınuedgrantingmokasas/saranjams/jagirs,andinsteadpreferredtopay his officials in cash.

However soon after Shivaji's death his son Raja Ram revived the practice of granting mokasas.

There was the tendency on the part of mokasa holders to convert their grant as inam or watan to make it hereditary.

A R Kulkarni finds the tendency to convert mokasas into hereditary tenures as 'feudal'.

Inam Lands

Inamlandswererevenuefreeassignmentsmadetothepious,needyandthescholars.

Interestingly, inam lands were not completely tax free.

They had to pay 1/3 rd or 1/4 th of the revenue collected to the state
depending on the nature of the inam tenure.

Inams were of two types - Diwan Nisbat Inam and Gaon Nisbat Inam.

The former was granted by the state through a sanad;
while the latter were made by the village community. It was known as
dehangi-inam and was granted to village artisans and servants.
Watan was a service tenure given to the holder in lieu of service.

Watans were largely held by village officials - village headmen (patil/muqaddam), village accountant (kulkarni), changula (assistant of patil), shete mahajan (village market officer), and the mahar (village watchman), temples, priests, etc.

In practice these were hereditary and permanent.

Watan and inam were used as synonyms in Maharashtra. Evolution of Revenue Policy

Shivaji introduced a system of collectinga shareof actual produce on the basis of land survey and measurement.

Fixing of state demand according to the availability of irrigation facilities was asoldasthedaysof Manuand Kautilya,buttheclassificationoflandaccording

to fertility and actual state of cultivation was due the influence of Malik Ambar's revenue system.

Under the Peshwas, the system of survey and Measurement was largely abandoned. They preferred making grants of land on long leases on a fixed state demand.

The state demand as well as the mode of payment of land revenue was not uniform and varied from region to region.

Expansion of Agriculture

To incentivise cultivators to bring more and more land under cultivation the land newly brought under cultivation was lightly taxed.

For bringing waste and rocky land under cultivation, Madhav Rao II
announced that half of such land would be given in inam and for the remaining half, rent-free concessions were offered for 20 years and further concession in reduced tax for another 5 years.
Welfare Measures

In times of famine, drought, plunder of crops or failure of crops, remissions of land revenue were granted.

To save the cultivator from the clutches of money-lenders the state granted 'Tagai Loans' at low rates of interest.

Thus, the revenue system of the Marathas was based on the principle of security of the tax-payer.

However, the benevolent system was upset by Baji Rao II who introduced the system of revenue-farming.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

Chauthand Sardeshmukhiweretwoinstrumentsusedby Shivajiandthesubsequent Maratha rulers to obtain treasure from enemy territories and Deshmukhs respectively.

Chauth

Shivajidemanded from the subjectsofhisenemies,tribute roughlyequivalentto one- fourth of the estimated revenue of the province to save themselves from the harassment of his armies.

He captured the rich people of the enemy territory and compelled them to agree to this ransom.

It is roughly estimated that the income of Shivaji from Chauth alone was approximately 90 lakh hons.

Chauth has a long history. Koli Rajas of Ramnagar (Konkan) were collecting Chauth from the Portuguese much before Shivaji levied it.

That is why the Portuguese used to address the Koli Rajas as Chauthia Raja.
The first instance of Shivaji asking for Chauth occurs when Shivaji subdued the Kolis (after the conquest of Ramnagar) and demanded the same Chauth from the Portuguese.

They resented it and there followed a tussle between them over the issue. Sometimes they delayed the payments and at times avoided paying in full.

Gradually, the Marathas began imposing the levy on a regular basis even from those Mughal territories over which they had claim/ indirect control.

Sardeshmukhi

It was imposed by Shivaji in his own dominion 'Swarajya' on the basis of his claim as hereditary Sardeshmukh (head-man of all Maharashtra). Thus, it was claimed by

Shivaji as a matter of right unlike Chauth.

It was based on the claim that as the hereditary Sardeshmukh, he was entitled to compensation for protecting the welfare of the people of the state.

This was only a fiction and was collected from all areas which paid Chauth as well.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, however, should not be confused with the spoils of war.
It was 10 percent of the total revenue realised. Sardeshmukhi was fixed along with jamabandi.

Sabhasad (Krishnaji Anant) has estimated the income of Shivaji's empire from Sardeshmukhi at 1 crore hons.

Debate about Chauth

Later on in the time of the Peshwas, the Mughal emperor's sanction was secured to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhifrom the sixsubasofthe Deccanfor which the Marathasagreed to servethe Mughalgovernment with 15,000 horsesandpayasmallsumasfee.Thustheenemy sources were gradually exhausted and the marathas were enabled to extend their boundaries.

View I: Chauth was similar to Wellesly's Subsidiary Alliance System

Thisfactmakes the Marathahistorian Ranadesaythat Chauthwasnota mere military contribution without any legal obligation but a payment in lieu of protection against the invasion of a third power.

He saysthat this couldbe compared with Wellesley's subsidiary system. In this system, the ruler ofa nativestate, if he choseto sign the subsidiarytreaty,had to keep a British force in his territory and pay for its maintenance.

The East India Company in its turn undertook the duty of protecting the ruler against external invasion and internal rebellion.

In Shivaji'ssystem,though therewasatacitunderstandingtoprotectthe state that pays Chauth from foreign aggression.

However the Maratha leaders could not pursue it to its logical end and give protection to those states.

In other words,under the subsidiary system, thecontrolof the British over the other party was far more complete and exacting than under the Maratha system.

View II: Counter-view

According to Sardesai, Chauth was just a tribute collected from hostile or conquered territories.

Surendra Nath Sen is of opinion that Chauth was nothing but a contribution exacted by a military leader and maintains that this black-mail was justified by the exigencies of the situation.

Jadunath Sarkar thinks that the payment of Chauth merely saved a kingdom from the unwelcome presence of the Maratha soldiers and civil underlings, but did not impose

on Shivaji any corresponding obligation to guard the district from foreign invasion or internal disorder.

The Marathas looked only to their gain and not to the fate of their prey after they had left. Chauth was only a means of buying off one robber and not a subsidiary system for the maintenance of peace and order against all enemies.

The lands subject to the chauth cannot therefore be rightly called spheres of influence.

Chauth for all intents and purposes, appears to have been a military contribution. It was paid to ward off an attack of the Marathas and perhaps to prevent their reappearance in a country.

View III: Chauth as an instrument of Feudalism

V.G. Dighe and S.N. Qanungo assert that in the time of the Peshwas, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi helped the growth of feudalism which Shivaji wanted to put an end to.

In the time of Shahu and his successors, the chiefswho raised men and money for realising Chauth and Sardeshrmukhi in distant lands on their own, could neither be expected to obey the royal orders nor render accounts of money they raised and spent.

The main cause for thiswasthat the kinghimself showed no interest in distant operations.

Other sources

The Marathas also derived some revenue from forests, customs and excise duties, mints etc.

Permits were sold for cutting timber from forests; forest grass, bamboo, wood and wild honey were also sold.

The state also granted licences for private mints to approved goldsmiths who were required to pay a royalty to the state.

Some other kind of taxes imposed were:

tax on land irrigated from wells,
a house tax recovered from everyone except brahmans and village officers,
an annual fee for the testing of weights and measures,
a tax on marriage and the remarriage of widows,
taxes on sheep and she-buffaloes,
a pasturage fee,
a tax on melon cultivation on river bed,
a succession duty and
a town duty century

The 18 th century is referred to as the transition period in Indian history. This was the period when, on the one hand, the Mughal Empire declined, and the provincial states came into existence. On the other hand, a company from Europe became a political power and then at one time it replaced the Mughal Empire, itself.

The biggest question that emerged was the evaluation of the 18 th century. Is it appropriate to recognise the first half of the 18 th century as Dark Age or age of decline, while the latter half of this period asthe period marked byprogress, prosperity, and modernity? Evaluation of this fact is possible only after investigating the changes that took place throughout the century.

Evaluation of the first half of the 18 th century

There had already been cracks in the structure of the Mughal Empire. Then after the death of Aurangzeb, those cracks deepened more and the Mughal Empire disintegrated.

Athar Ali mentions three categories of state formations in 18 th century India

Successor states like Hyderabad, Awadh and Bengal whichwerepartof the Mughalempireandemerged

due to the disintegration of Mughal empire. Their administrative structure was a continuation of the Mughal model.

The Maratha confederacy, Jats, Sikhs and Afghans rose to power as a consequence of the crisis which had weakened the Mughal imperial structure.

South Indian state of Mysore under Hyder Ali Khan and Tipu Sultan.

Successor States

The following states were important as the successor states of the Mughal Empire:

Bengal

Murshid Quli Khan

In the last days of his rule, Aurangzeb made Murshid Quli Khan the Diwan of Bengal in 1700 AD, for better revenue collection.

Murshid Quli Khan strengthened the revenue administration by suppressing the rebel landlords.

Then, taking advantage of the circumstances arising due to Aurangzeb's death, he also became the Subedar of Bengal in 1717 AD. Thus, when the posts of Subedar and Diwan were united, there appeared the post of Nawab.

Successors

Murshid Quli Khan ruled till 1727. He was later succeeded by his son-in-law

Shujauddin who ruled until 1739. Shujauddin's successor was Sarfaraz Khan who ruled for only 1 year. In 1740, Alivardi Khan removed him from the throne and forcefully seized the power. Then Alivardi Khan ruled as the Nawab of Bengal between 1740 and 1756.

Autonomy

Murshid Quli Khan kept the vestige of the empire, he accepted Mughal sovereignty in his lifetime.

The successorsof Murshid Quli Khan also accepted thenominal power of the Mughals and were sending them revenue, but Alivardi Khan stopped even giving revenue.

Awadh

Awadh became an independent kingdom under ambitious leader Saadat Khan. Saadat Khan ruled from 1720 to 1739. He had committed suicide in course of Nadir Shah's incident.

Thenhewassucceededby Safdar Jungwhowasalsoappointedtothepostof Vazir.Hence, the Nawab of Awadh was called the Nawab-Vazir.

Hyderabad

An independent Hyderabad state was established under Nizam-Mulk Asaf Jah. He held the post of Vazir under the Mughal Empire between 1720 and 1722.

But after being disappointed with the Mughal Empire, he left Delhi and moved to Hyderabad and in 1724 he established an independent kingdom in Hyderabad.

Later on, the state of Carnatic became independent from Hyderabad under Sadatulla Khan. Its capital was Arcot.

The three successor states mentioned above were established by the highly qualified nobles and they established there very capable governments. Therefore, the ironyisthat on one side the central power was disintegrating and on the other side strong and efficient provincial governments were being established.

Rebel Kingdom

Marathas

Shivaji's Swarajya:

In south, the Marathas established their power by rebelling against the southern kingdom and further against the Mughals. Shivaji established an independent Maratha kingdom which extended into Maharashtra as well as the Karnataka region.

Although these territories were conquered during the southern expedition of Aurangzeb, after the death of Aurangzeb, Shahu again established as an independent ruler and was recognized by the Mughals as well.

Peshwas

Some ambitious Peshwas emerged under Shahu, such as Balaji Vishwanath, Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao etc. Under their leadership, Maratha state was converted into a Maratha empire.

Balaji Vishwanath got the right from the Mughals to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in 6 Subahs of Deccan. He then divided this authority among other Maratha chieftains. Due to this, some Maratha chieftains became extremely powerful.

A Maratha Confederacy was formed at the centre of which was Peshwa of Poona, while its other members were Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, Bhosale of Nagpur and Gaikwad of Baroda.

It was the time; Maratha power was expanding in the north under the Peshwas. Marathas got entangled in Delhi politics. Marathas involved themselves by trying to play to role of kingmakers at Delhi as well in the nearby Rajputana region.

▪ It was the time when north India was subjected to the regular invasions from Afghanistan under the leadership of Abdali.

▪ Hence, his confrontation with the Afghans became natural, resulting in the Third War of Panipat (1761).

Sikhs

The Sikh, originally a peaceful religious sect, was militarized due to the Mughal policy.

From the fourth Guru, Guru Ramdas, the Guruship became hereditary.
Fifth Guru Arjun Dev built Golden Temple. He developed regional Masnad and startedtoliveinsemiroyallifeandstartedcollectingspiritual tax.Bythistime,Sikh Guru had emerged to be a political entity. But he was tortured executed by Jahangir.

Sixth Guru Hargobind built Akal Takht and militarized Sikhism. He was also imprisoned by Jahangir for some time.

The 9 th Guru Tegh Bahadur had to face martyrdom in face of Aurangzeb's policy.
The 10 th and last Guru, Guru Gobind Singh founded the Khalsa sect. He tried to govern by making Anandpur Sahib as his headquarter, but he had to face the invasion of Mughal Subedar Wazir Khan. He finally was treacherously murdered in Nanded in 1708. He had declared that he would be the last living Guru and after him, the Granth sahib would be the Guru.

After Gurugovind Singh, Banda Bahadur carried the Sikhs revolt against the Mughals

He had organized Jats of Punjab.
A Mughal noble, Hussain Ali, defeated and killed Banda Bahadur at the fort of Lohgarh. Hence this rebellion subsided for some time.

Taking advantage of the political vacuum after the battle of Panipat (1761), some eminent Sikh leaders gathered at Amritsar in 1764 and then gave the slogan 'Wah-e-Guru ki Khalsa Wah-Guru ki Fatah' and issued pure silver coins. With this, an independent Sikh state was established.

Initially, the Sikh states were organized as Misl whose nature was republican.

There were a total of 12 Misls, among them the Bhangi Misl was the most powerful.

Another important Misl was Sukerchakia Misl to which Ranjit Singh was associated. A large and powerful Sikh kingdom was established under Ranjit Singh.

More states

Jat State: Gokul Jat first revolted against Aurangzeb and was suppressed. Later, in 1685

Rajaram Jat revolted and posed a serious challenge. However, this rebellion too was suppressed. After Aurangzeb, Churaman Jat and Badan Singh established an independent Jat state. Later, Surajmal Jat was a major Jat leader in the mid 18 th century.

Rohilla State:Some Pathannoblestogetherestablishedanindependent Rohilla Statefrom the North of Awadh.

Bangash Pathan State:Anindependent Bangash Pathanstatewasestablishednear Ruhela State.

State of Bundelkhand: A Rajput ruler Chhatrashal rebelled against the Mughals and established an independent Bundelkhand state.

States outside the Mughal Empire

Mysore State: It remained outside the periphery of the Mughal Empire and was the successor of Vijayanagar.Mysore graduallyemergedtobepowerful under Wodeyars,esp.

Chikkadevaraya in the 18 th century.

Hyder was an ambitiousand capable military general. He reformed army,and with the help of French he established an armoury at Dindigul. Soon, he captured the power by sidelining Wodeyars.

Thestateof Kerala:The Malabar Coastalsoremainedoutsidetheperipheryof the Mughal Empire. Calicut, Cochin and Travancore were established as major states in this region.

Martanda Varma and Rama Varma were powerful rulers in Travancore.
The Dutch were defeated by Martand Varma in the battle of Colachel (1741)

Rajput State: The Rajputs served under the Mughals but their own territory remained autonomous. Hence even after the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, they continued to rule in the states of Amer, Mewar, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota etc.

Dark Age Hypothesis

The first half of 18 th century has been characterized as dark age:

Political basis

It was termed as a period of political disintegration and anarchy.

It is said that small states came into existence after the decline of the Mughal Empire, then during this period, the rebel leaders created chaos.

Raids by Marathas brought the situation further to dismal condition.

But after observation, we found that while on one side, the central power was disintegrating, but on the other, efficient governments were established at the regional

levelin Bengal,Awadhand Hyderabad.Thesegovernmentsnotonlystrengthenedlaw and order, but also encouraged economic activities.

Bengal,Hyderabad,Mysore,Travancorewerewellgovernedstateswithcompetent rulers.

Despite initial disruption, Marathas were able to create a strong and efficient administration in Central India.

Thus, the focus of Mughal empire as representing pan-Indian aspirations and neglect of the peripheral polities is unwarranted.

Lackof Mughalcentralizationshouldnotbeequatedwiththelackofprosperity.Weshould keep in mind the cyclical nature of Indian history, when a large empire disintegrates and regional powers emerge, only to form an empire later once more.

Therefore, there is no reason to believe that only the British could give an alternative to the Mughal Empire. We can definitely say that if the British intervention had not taken place, the Indian politics could have taken another direction.

Economic basis

Most of the scholars working on this period had a Mughal centric view. Hence he saw the disintegration of the Mughal Empire as an economic crisis and attributed it to the disruption in the agrarian economy.

But after examining minutely, it is known that during this period the cultivation of cash crops had increased. Then due to European trade, precious metals were coming to India in large scale.

Inrecentresearch,scholarslike Muzaffar Alam,Karen Leonard,P.J.Marshall havepointed tothefactthatagroupofrichmerchantsandbankers wasestablishedinthis period.They

started playing an important role in the economy and they had formed a kind of alliance with the officials and landlords too. In this way the economy was strengthening on a regional basis.

Socio-cultural Aspects

There was a cultural stagnation in literature and arts. Artists and Poets lost the patronage and had to migrate to smaller town in search of alternative. The thriving Mughal urban culture had started to give way to decadence.

The Urdu Shahr Ashobs (Ruined cities) of the contemporary poets Mir and Sauda have been analysed by Ralph Russell and Khurshidul Islam. The poets lament the destruction of Delhi and Agra and the degeneration of the ethics and principles.

However, regional patriarchs supported the artists which led to unprecedented diversity of forms. There was emergence of Pahari/Rajasthani painting styles and various gharanas

of classical music. Moreover, the new capitals of emerging states were centres of arts and architecture with regional diversity. So, even after the decline of Mughal Empire, Mughal culture flourished.

On the basisof the above facts, thisperiod hascome to be known aspre-modern period That is why, it is now necessary to consider British intervention as a major disruption, not as an indicator of progress.