Constitutional Developments
UPSC PYQs
- The Charter Act of 1833 rung down the curtain on the company's trade and introduced a new concept of government in India. Substantiate. [2011, 20 m]
- "The Regulating Act (1773), the Pitt's India Act (1784) and eventually the Charter Act of 1833 left the East India Companyas a mere shadow of itsearlier political and economic power in India." Critically examine. [2015, 10 m]
- "The need to impose greater parliamentary control over the Company's affairs increased during the decades (1773 - 1853) after Plassey." Elucidate. [2016, 20 m]
- With 'free trade' becoming the dominant economic doctrine in Britain, it was difficult for the government to resist demands for the termination of the Company's monopoly.
- Private traders wanted to share in the profits.
- Industrial capitalists
- The success of the Industrial Revolution drastically altered conditions in Britain: rather than buying finished products, Britain now needed to secure markets for its factory goods produced on a massive scale, and captive suppliers of raw materials for the production of these goods.
- At pace with the altered conditions, Company rule in India now had to act as an accessory, an instrument to ensure 'the necessary conditions of law and order' to make the vast Indian market captive for British goods. (Eric Stokes)
- The Charter Act of 1793 renewed the charter of the Company for 20 years, giving it possession of all territories in India during that period.
- The Act established that "acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right," which clearly stated that the company's political functions were on behalf of the British government.
- Control over the Company:
- The financial independence of the Company was taken away.
- The Home Government members were to be paid out of Indian revenues which continued up to 1919.
- The royal approval was mandated for the appointment of the governor-general, the governors, and the commander-in-chief.
- Therewasamodestconcessiontothefreetraders.The Companywasempoweredto give licences to individuals as well as the Company's employees to trade in India.
- Steps towards centralization within India
- Notmanysignificantchanges inthegovernmentof India exceptthe increase inthe power of the governor.
- The governor general's power over the council was extended.
- He was given power to levy taxes and authorized to issue licenses for liquor.
- Governorsof Bombayand Madraswerebroughtmoredecisivelyunderhiscontrol.
- Reduced administrative discretion:
- A specific direction was given to the Companyadministration that it would have to draw a written code of law for India. Thus, it introduced in India the concept of a civil law, enacted by a secular human agency, and applied universally.
- All laws were to be printed with translations in Indian languages, so that people could know of their rights, privileges, and immunities.
- Itboundthecourtstoregulatetheirdecisionsbytherulesanddirectivescontained therein. Thus, a new tradition was set as the judicial courts could interpret these
- It included a clause asserting the Crown's undoubted sovereignty over all of the Company's territories. Its preamble explicitly declared that the sovereignty of the British Crown over the Company's territories in India was paramount.
- In 1813th e Company Charter was renewedwitha provisothatthe Companymonopolistic hold over the Indian trade would end and a new era of free trade wouldbe initiated. Thus
- Renewal of charter for 20 years, thus the Company was granted right over Indian possessions and revenues for next 20 years.
- The chairman of the Board of Control was necessarily to be from among the Ministers of the government.
- Partial abolition of trade monopoly: Except for trade in tea and trade with China.
- Partial opening of India to British emigrants:
- It imposed licensing restrictions on long-term residence by private British individuals (private merchants, free traders) in India.
- The act also allowed Christian missionaries to enter India and propagate their religion.
- Rs.1 lakhperannumforpromotionof Indianlanguages,literatureandscientificeducation in India. It was for encouraging learned natives and the revival of literature, and for promoting knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the country.
- The charter gave to the Company the authority to govern the Indian empire for another 20 years.
- All its business activities were wound up, including the abolition of the monopoly of tea trade with China. Now, the Company ceased to be a commercial concern. Henceforth, it was to be only a political-administrative body.
- This did not amount to a loss for its shareholders who were guaranteed an annual dividend of 10.5% by the British government.
- Opening India further:
- All restrictions on British immigration, through licensing requirements were removed. Also, British settlers could henceforth settle and acquire land in India.
- It laid down the regulation for Christian establishments in India and the number of Bishops was made three.
- It further tightened the control of the government over the Company. The Board of Control was empowered to superintend all administrative affairs in India.
- Centralisation of Government:
- Centralization of financial, legislative and administrative matters.
- The governor general was henceforth to be known as the 'Governor General of India'. (Lord Bentinck becomes the first one).
- He would, in consultation with his council, control all civil, military and revenue matters in the whole of India.
- Governors of Madras and Bombay were made fully subordinate to him.
- Thus,the Actcreated, forthe firsttime, a Governmentof India,with authorityover entire territorial possessions of the British India.
- The Charter Act of 1833 also introduced some administrative changes.
- Formation of a fourth presidency (Agra Presidency) by splitting the Bengal Presidency into two. This experiment was a short-lived one.
- Separation of Power: Some crucial changes were made to the governor general's council.
- The governor general in council was, therefore, empowered to legislate for the whole of British territories in India and these laws were to be applicable to all persons, British or Indian.
- The Act centralized the process of framing laws (One Legislative Council for all British territories in India) and gave to the laws and regulations framed by the governor general's council the force of statutes.
- Since the making of lawsrequired legal expertise,a provision was made for adding a 'law member' to the council. (4 th member) ▪ Thelawmember'spresencewassupposedtobeessentialwhenthecouncil was deliberating upon any legislation.
- It provided for a law commission to facilitate the codification of law. ▪ This four-member commission was headed by Macaulay.
- Reform Provisions:
- Indians to be recruited in jobs and no discrimination based on race. (Section 87)
- It enjoined the Company's government to abolish slavery in India. (Slavery was finally abolished in 1843.)
- The Charter was renewed in 1853, but this time not for another 20- years. It did not specify the duration for which it would be valid.
- The Company was allowed to retain the Indian possessions "in trust for Her
- It subjected the EIC's empire in India to much tighter control by the British government.
- A decisive measure was the provision for reconstituting the court of directors. ▪ One-third of its members were now to be nominees of the British government. They were to be the members of the British Council of Ministers.
- The selection of covenanted civil servants was now to be based on an open competition. ▪ Members of the court of directors were deprived of the privilege of nominating candidates for appointment to superior posts in the civil service.
- The idea of a distinct 'legislative council', which was already conceptually present in the Charter Act of 1833, was now developed further. This was now a body of 12 members comprising the
- Governor general
- Four 'ordinary members' (including the law member) ▪ The law member (added in 1833) was now made a full member of the council.
- The commander-in-chief
- Six 'additional members' (added in 1853)
- Chief justice and a judge of the Supreme Court of Calcutta
- One member each from the three presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, and from the North-Western Provinces.
- The conservative government of Britain set up the Indian Statutory Commission (Statutory Commission) in November, 1927 to review the working of the Montford reforms.
- The Montford reforms had provided for the appointment of such a commission after ten years of its operation.
- However, the conservatives were expected to lose the upcoming elections of January, 1928, they did not want to leave the task of setting up such an important commission in the "irresponsible liberal hands".
- Thus, the Commission had an important mandate-
- To determine whether to extend, restrict or modify the scope of responsible government of India.
- To report whether the relationship between British India and the Princely states needs to be altered.
- As soon as the news of the appointment of this commission reached India, there was a huge outcry since it was an All-White Commission as no Indian had been considered capable enough to determine India's political future.
- Since its arrival in India in early 1928, the commission was met with black flag agitations, bonfires of British cloth, massive demonstrations and chants of Simon Go back!
- Almost all political parties including the Congress, Swaraj party, Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League boycotted it exhibiting remarkable political unity.
- The anti-Simon agitation also spread to the princely states with the emergence of the Praja Mandal movement (State Peoples' Movements). Congress, especially Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru played a leading role in spreading nationalist consciousness among masses of the princely states.
- However, some leaders and parties did not boycott the Simon Commission and raised significant demands
- Dr Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the depressed classes.
- The Justice Party demanded reservations for non-Brahmins of the Madras constituency in government services, education and legislative representation.
- The Unionist Party of Punjab demanded greater protections for landowners and peasants.
- Some Muslim leaders demanded the creation of a Muslim majority province by separating the Sindhi speaking areas of the Bombay Presidency.
- Nevertheless, the anti-Simon agitation revived the era of mass anti-colonial protests. The British felt deeply embarrassed by the popularity of the anti-Simon agitation.
- Thus, they began brutally suppressing the agitation using lathicharge, mass arrests and preventive detention.
- Lala Lajpat Rai was grievously injured in a Police lathicharge while leading a demonstration at Lahore and passed away a few days later.
- The mood of the masses became radical and the Simon Commission was forced to retire.
- In 1929, Bhagat Singh and his comrades revenged Lala Lajpat Rai by assassinating JB Saunders who they mistakenly believed was responsible for Lala Lajpat Rai's death.
- In the meanwhile, the government became increasingly frustrated and began searching for a way out to destroy national unity. Nehru Committee Report
- The Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead became increasingly frustrated by the boycott of the Simon Commission, challenged Indians to prepare their own draft of
- In response, the Indian parties held three All Party conferences at Delhi, Bombay, Lucknow after which committee chaired by Motilal Nehru was appointed to prepare this draft.
- The Nehru Committee consisted of several jurists and leaders such as SC Bose, Ali Imam, MR Jayakar, and Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru among others.
- In September, 1928, the Nehru committee submitted its draft in the form of a report with the following recommendations and demands-
- Dominion status within the British Empire
- Secularism i.e. India would not have any state religion and its people would enjoy the freedom of religion.
- Universal Adult Franchise i.e. everyone above the age of 21 years would have the right to vote irrespective of their socio-economic status.
- Abolition of Separate electorates
- Reservation of Muslims wherever they were in minority.
- Fundamental rights for all Indians including the Right to Equality for both men and women.
- Federal polity with a strong centre.
- In response to the Nehru report, Jinnah raised fourteen demands in the interest of Indian Muslims. Of these, there were five key demands-
- Separate electorates should continue till Universal Adult Franchise is introduced.
- Reservation for Muslims in proportion to their population.
- One-third seats in the Central Legislative Assembly to be reserved for Muslims.
- Minority veto.
- Federal polity with a weak centre.
- However, all these demands were rejected by the Congress and no compromise could be reached. This represented the first major breach between the Congress and Muslim League.
- While many of these demands had been acceptable to Congress under the Lucknow Pact (1916), the growth of populism and right wing ideology among the Congress workers prevented any compromise.
- The younger Congressmen such as SC Bose and Pt Jawahar Lal Nehru were not satisfied with the demand of dominion status rather they wanted complete independence.
- The demand of complete independence was not new. Within the national movement, it had first been raised by Aurobindo Ghosh during the Swadesh movement. Later, Hasrat
- However, this demand for complete independence had not emerged as the primary objective of the national movement as a whole.
- The Nehru report had asked for dominion status within British rule.
- Under pressure from the younger nationalists, the Congress while endorsing the Nehru report in its Calcutta session of 1928 gave a one year deadline to the government to
- Citing lack of consensus among the Indian political parties, the government ignored the Nehru report.
- In the Lahore session, 1929, Pt Jawahar Lal Nehru was elected as President and he introduced the Purna Swaraj resolution. For the first time, the Congress officially raised
- For the first time, demand of complete independence was raised by the Congress. This would remain the position of the Congress till the attainment of the independence. As
- Following the Purna Swaraj resolution, the national struggle became even more intense than earlier. It represented the emergence of a higher degree of radicalism that would
- The Purna Swaraj demand also signaled a shift within the leadership of the Congress. The campaign for Purna Swaraj demand had been championed by the younger leaders namely SC Bose and Pt Nehru. Slowly but surely it began eclipsing the more senior leaders.
- The shift in leadership also symbolized shift in the ideological position of the Congress.
- The internal politics of the Congress would also witness major upheavals as a result of the growing ideological divide within it. The most visible manifestation of this was the post- CDM strategic debate within the Congress prompting Mahatma Gandhi to resign from the Congress in 1934.
- As the Congress began leaning towards the left, it adopted populist position on several social and economic issues resulting in higher mass participation including the
- One aspect of the Congress' increasingly popular agenda was to clearly define what independence would look like for the masses.
- As such, in its special session at Karachi i.e. 1931, the Congress adopted two landmark resolutions namely resolution on fundamental rights and the resolution on a New Economic Programme.
- These resolutions set the Congress towards the path of an egalitarian, inclusive, progressive and democratic society.
- The growing influence of the socialist ideology was also visible during the Civil Disobedience movement. Unlike the non-cooperation movement where Mahatma Gandhi had tried to avoid direct confrontation between the classes, thus withdrawing it.
- On the whole, the Purna Swaraj resolution represented the coming of age of Indian nationalism.
- It was the logical conclusion of the evolving concept of Swaraj.
- It represented the emergence of a polyphonic national movement which would be carried out in accordance with a consensus among different ideologies rather than a single dominant ideology or leader.
- Swadeshi movement and then Home Rule League had created a consciousness for self- rule but it had not yet reached a mutual consensus regarding the extent of the Swaraj.
- Act of 1919 further proved the malicious intentions of British. To remedy this, government set up an 'All-White' Simon Commission which faced huge political agitations by all the parties in India.
- Amidst this political mood, Lord Birkenhead (Secretary of State for India) challenged Indian parties to form a common constitution.
- All Party conferences were organized but the deal broke out because of Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha. Nonetheless, a committee headed by Motilal Nehru submitted its report with the demand of 'dominion status'.
- However, by now, the younger leaders such as SC Bose and Jawahar Lal Nehru were not ready to accept anything less than the complete independence.
- Under their pressure, Congress (especially Mahatma Gandhi) gave an ultimatum of one year to the government to accept the demands of the Motilal Nehru report; else
- However, government was emboldened by the disunity of Indians and did not realize the importance of the demand at that time.
- Finally, at Lahore session in 1929 under the Presidency of Jawahar Lal Nehru, Congress gave the call for Purna Swaraj i.e. complete independence.
- For the first time, demand for complete independence was made which intensified the national struggle.
- The leadership of the Congress sifted to younger leaders.
- Due to entry of young leaders, further radicalisation of the movement took place as they were influenced by the left ideology.
- Thus, inclination towards socialism was natural, further increasing the reach of the Congress to Kisan sabhas and workers' unions. Congress Socialist Party was formed in 1934 within the Congress umbrella.
- Moreover, in Karachi session (1931) under Sardar Patel, resolution for New Economic Programme and the Fundamental rights was passed showing the change in political understanding of the nationalists.
- However, Mahatma Gandhi resigned from the Congress in 1934 amid increasing ideological confrontation in the post-CDM atmosphere.
- The circumstances for Civil Disobedience Movement were prepared by the series of developments that had taken place within the national struggle since the appointment of the Simon Commission.
- The government rejected the Nehru Report prompting the Congress to adopt the Purna
- Mahatma Gandhi began by presenting a set of 11 demands before the government.
- Abolition of Salt tax
- Abolition of liquor and other intoxicants
- The release of political prisoners
- Return of confiscated property
- Inquiry into police atrocities
- Reduction of land revenue
- Lifting the prohibition on the nationalist literature
- Strengthening the Indian currency
- Protecting Indian industries against foreign competition
- A closer observation of these demands has allowed historians to categorise them into three classes-
- Genera interest demands
- Peasant demands
- Bourgeois demands
- This clearly demonstrates Mahatma Gandhi's intention to enlist the support of each section of the population for the upcoming civil disobedience movement.
- He knew that the government would not accept these demands, thus he was raising them to clarify the Congress' position to the masses.
- At the same time, he wanted to secure the moral high ground for the nationalists since this forewarning was sufficient to preempt any accusations by the British underhandedness by Indians.
- Mahatma Gandhi followed this by launching the civil disobedience movement when the government ignored these demands.
- 12 th March, 1930- The movement began with the Dandi March as Mahatma Gandhi led a band of 78 Satyagrahis from his ashram at Sabarmati to Dandi where he reached on the
- Similar salt marches or salt Satyagrahas were organized in other coastal areas including-
- Kerala - K. Kelappan - Calicut to Pazhyannur
- Tamil Nadu - C. Rajagopalachari - Thiruchirapalli to Vedaranyam
- Eastern India - Satyagrahis - Sylhet to Noakhali
- Similarly, salt agitations were organized around major salt refining factories such as-
- Vadala (Bombay)
- Sainiktala (Karnataka)
- Dharasana Salt works (Gujarat)
- In the North-West Frontier Province, the Civil Disobedience Movement took the shape of a massive protest movement against British rule in favour of a Pashtun homeland and unity with the rest of India.
- The movement was led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan who through his Khuda-i-
- A major shock was received by the British when Indian sepoys refused to fire on the unarmed protesters.
- United Provinces- the CDM took the form of powerful no-revenue campaign by the peasants.
- Since the government had banned the publication of nationalist material, mass mobilization was conducted through publication of Patrikas (illegal news sheets), Prabhatpheris, Manjari senas and Vanar senas.
- Eastern India- CDM took the shape of a no-rent and no-revenue campaign that targeted both the British as well as the Zamindars.
- Additionally, this region also witnessed powerful anti-Union board tax and anti- Chowkidari tax campaigns.
- Central India and Karnataka- here, the movement brought about powerful forest agitations which both tribals and non-tribals violated forest laws.
- North East India- Movement took the shape of a popular protest against British rule over the attainment of independence in north east.
- Rani Gaidinliu, a 13 year old queen from Manipur emerged as the face of the movement for a separate homeland for the Nagas and the Manipuris.
- Movement was a true All India Gandhian Movement. It witnessed the participation of several sections in large numbers across various regions including cities and villages.
- At the same time, the rising influence of Socialism was visible within the movement especially in the radical no-rent campaign of peasants and tribals against Zamindars.
- Hindu-Muslim unity was missing in the CDM and Muslim participation remained low except for the NWFP.
- While the Civil Disobedience movement witnessed a leftward shift, it was unable to attract the workers in large numbers. This was because left within the Congress was still
- The movement remained peaceful from beginning to the end with the nationalists displaying remarkable courage, patience and restraint. This indicates that the masses had fully accepted the Gandhian method of non-violent Satyagraha.
- Despite this, the British responded with brutal and violent suppression. Civil liberties were suspended with restrictions on speech, expression, movement, assembly and association. The Police was given a free hand to violently suppress and disperse peaceful marches, salt agitations, pickets and satyagrahas through lathicharges, mass arrests and preventive detention.
- The brutal British repression invited International attention. For the first time, the national struggle received the sympathy and goodwill of the international community.
- The mood of the Congress appeared far more radical as compared to earlier. It even boycotted the Round Table conference forcing the government to come to the negotiating table resulting in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
- At the same time, cracks had started emerging within the movement. Traders and industrialists were the first to show the signs of fatigue. They were the first to feel the
- British government organized a series of three Round table conferences at London with the different Indian political stakeholders to discuss findings of the Simon Commission to formulate framework for the new constitutional machinery to govern India.
- The Congress boycotted the First Round Table conference (1930) since the Civil disobedience movement was going on.
- However, other political parties attended.
- The Muslim League represented by Muhammad Ali Jinnah demanded the continuation of separate electorates and the creation of new Muslim majority province such as Sindh.
- The Hindu Mahasabha represented by MR Jayakar demanded the abolition of separate electorates and reservation given to minorities. Additionally, they demanded the creation of an All India Federation with the Princely states.
- The Depressed classes represented by Dr Ambedkar demanded minority status for the dalits and separate electorates as well.
- Liberals represented by Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru demanded greater degree responsible government within British rule.
- The Princely states were represented by their Diwans and agents demanded continuation of the status quo. They opposed the idea of the compulsory incorporation of princely states to any All India Federation and demanded that their participation must be on a voluntary basis.
- The position of these parties remained unchanged throughout all the round table conferences.
- The Congress however, boycotted the first as well as third round table conference. However, it did attend the second round table conference following the Gandhi-Irwin Pact but realizing that the government was not serious about the Indian political opinion and withdrew from it.
- The round table conferences were never actually meant to yield any meaningful results.
- The real intention behind these conferences was to exploit the differences between the different political parties to maintain the status quo and preserve autocratic rule in India.
- The British strategy from the very beginning was to establish parity between the Congress and the other parties in order to undermine Congress and Indian nationalism.
- British Government's efforts to give parity to other parties as equal to Congress were in itself an attempt to apply the policy of 'divide and rule' and weaken the voice of the Congress.
- All the parties such as Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha and princely states represented sectarian and narrow interests which were contradictory to national interests promoted by Congress.
- British attempted to legitimize their interests in order to use them as a shield against any accusation of autocracy.
- Anti-Simon agitation and later Civil Disobedience Movement attracted global attention which brought huge criticism to British. Thus, Round Table Conferences are even
- Thirdly, the genesis of the report itself lied in a commission which was full of racial superiority complex i.e. Simon Commission. Absence of Indian members from a discussion on their own interests itself shows lack of seriousness.
- Fourthly, during First Round Table Conference, Congress, despite being the largest organisation, did not participate since Civil Disobedience movement was going on.
- By early 1931, Congress had been facing pressure from industrialists. They wanted the Civil disobedience movement to be suspended due to building financial strain.
- On the other hand, the government was also desperate for a compromise since the absence of the Congress from the First Round Table Conference had been big source of embarrassment as the process of constitutional reforms had been halted.
- On 5 th March, 1931, Mahatma Gandhi was invited by Governor General Irwin for an open dialogue resulting in the signing of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
- The two sides agreed that-
- Civil disobedience movement would be suspended.
- The Congress would attend Second Round Table conference.
- The salt law was amended. The production of salt for private consumption would not require a license.
- The government would release all political prisoners.
- Private property that had been confiscated had to be returned.
- The peaceful picketing of shops selling liquor was allowed. Significance of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact
- It represented the first instance in which Indians had been treated as equals by the
- The Congress had agreed to any compromise with the government primarily under the pressure of powerful business groups. This proves that despite the growth of the
- The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was negotiated on the basis of Mahatma Gandhi's 11 point demand which he had raised as a prelude to the Civil disobedience. The government had to fulfill some of these promises in order to conclude the pact-
- This proves Mahatma Gandhi's uncanny ability to tackle the British and also validated his Satyagraha strategy once again. Also it proved the Congress right for entrusting Mahatma Gandhi with the leadership of the movement.
- While the Gandhi-Irwin Pact symbolized a major achievement, many of Mahatma Gandhi's demands remained unfulfilled.
- The pact offered no protection to Indian industries. There was no discussion on strengthening the Rupee against pound.
- Salt tax remained in place.
- There was no prohibition on intoxicants.
- No discussion was started on the issue of land revenue. The government refused to even entertain the question of inquiry into police brutalities.
- Therefore, while the government had been successfully brought to the negotiating table, weaknesses within the own movement of the Congress prevented substantial progress.
- Gandhi had experienced earlier as well that a popular mass movement cannot be continued for a very long time.
- Secondly, by this time, industrialists were also creating pressure on the Congress to suspend the movement due to mounting financial stress.
- Thirdly, sporadic incidents of violence had started occurring in different parts of the country.
- Fourthly, British had also realised the futility of Round Table conference in absence of the Congress.
- They were also facing pressure from the international community regarding their misgovernance in the country.
- It was the first time when British were treating Indians as equals. Gandhi's meeting with Governor General and even the British Emperor shows his stature.
- Although Congress was tilting towards socialism, impact of business interests on Gandhian movement cannot be denied. This also shows the broad class collaboration under Gandhi's leadership.
- The negotiations were finalized on Gandhi's 11 point programmes and several of his demands such as freeing political prisoners etc. were accepted.
- However, the British upper hand in the negotiations can be gauged from the fact that several important demands remained unfulfilled.
- The Gandhi-Irwin Pact prepared the occasion for the Congress to organise a special session and to ratify it. It was held in Karachi in April, 1931 with Sardar Patel as President.
- At this session, following developments took place-
- Congress ratified Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
- It agreed to participate in second Round Table Conference and nominated Mahatma Gandhi as its sole representative.
- The demand for Purna Swaraj was reiterated.
- Pt Nehru introduced two historical resolutions namely- fundamental rights resolution and New Economic Programme Resolution and clearly defined what Swaraj would mean to the masses for the first time.
- Fundamental rights resolution-
- Right to freedom of speech, expression, movement, assembly and association
- Right to Equality including equal rights for both men and women
- Universal Adult Franchise
- Protection of the cultural rights of minorities
- Right to free and compulsory primary education
- Resolution on New Economic Policy-
- Relief from agrarian debt
- Reduction in land revenue
- Tenancy reform including security of tenure for peasants
- Better working conditions and higher wages for workers in industry
- The right of peasants and workers to form Unions and bargain collectively.
- With these resolutions, the Congress fully committed itself to the socialist objective of creating to prepare an equal society.
- The Congress would follow this up by supporting trade union movements and the Kisan Sabhas. This would also result in the introduction of economic planning in New Economic Plan of 1938 and Bombay Plan of 1944.
- These resolutions especially the one on fundamental rights prepared the platform for advocacy towards a free, open, democratic and secular society.
- Education became the motto for development and progress and emerged as the great equalizer.
- Further, the Congress also prepared a pathway towards a rational society that would overcome obstacles and make decisions collectively.
- These resolutions clearly defined what independence would mean for the masses for the first time.
- It would not simply be political independence from foreign rule. Instead, the underprivileged sections would also be liberated from their historical bondage with social and economic justice.
- These resolutions while signaling a major shift did not signify complete break from the past. Instead, Congress built upon the legacy of the Nehru report by endorsing many of its recommendations.
- In accordance with the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Mahatma Gandhi represented the Congress at the Second Round Table Conference. This round of talks ended in a deadlock as no
- The government blamed Indians for being unable to reach a consensus while the Congress blamed the government for deliberately derailing the negotiations.
- Therefore, the Second Round Table Conference also ended in failure.
- Mahatma Gandhi came back to India and the Civil Disobedience movement resumed. However, the earlier energy could not be revived and popular response remained low.
- On the other hand, the government tried to further divide the Indian nationalists with the Mc Donald Award.
- Dr Ambedkar had been demanding separate electorates for the depressed classes ever since the Simon Commission's visit to India. He had reiterated this demand in all the Round Table Conferences.
- He argued that the depressed classes or untouchables were not considered part of the Hindu four-fold Varna system.
- Therefore, they were not actually Hindu. Rather, they constituted a religious minority outside Hinduism.
- As such, the principle of minority reservation in electoral processes could be applied to them as well.
- Other religious minorities such as Muslims, Sikhs, and Anglo-Indians had been granted separate electorate. Thus, the depressed classes must be granted the same.
- Frustrated by failure of the Round Table Conferences and the resumption of the Civil disobedience movement, the British government reverted to its tried and tested policy of divide and rule.
- In 1932, the British Prime Minister Ramsay Mc Donald announced his infamous Communal award recognizing India's depressed classes as a religious minority and granted separate electorates for them.
- At the time of this award Mahatma Gandhi was imprisoned at Yerwada jail in Poona. He was deeply alarmed by this announcement and decided to go on a fast unto death.
- He was opposed to the award for following reasons-
- It would have permanently fractured Indian society and would have weakened national movement as a whole by dividing Indians
- It would have institutionalised untouchability. It would have been social evil that would have given constitutional recognition and would have furthered the division between upper class and depressed class. Its impact would have been similar to the impact of separate electorates on Muslims.
- Dr Ambedkar visited Mahatma Gandhi on the 21 st day of his fast and they agreed that
- Depressed classes would not have separate electorates
- They would have joint electorate with reservation that would be double of what they already enjoyed. Following this, pact was signed by Dr Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi representing the depressed classes and Dr Madan Mohan Malviya on behalf of the upper caste Hindus.
- The Mc Donald had represented the major breach not only within Indian nationalism but also within the Hindu society. It created the potential for open conflict between the depressed classes and upper castes.
- Therefore, the Poona Pact proved to be a timely intervention that diffused the situation.
- However, the relationship between Dr Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi could never be repaired fully.
- Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress leadership had received a major wake up call. From now on, they exhibited greater sincerity towards the issues of the untouchables. It was
- His untouchable emancipation program was based on his philosophies of trusteeship and class cooperation.
- His advocacy of dalit dignity was directed towards the upper castes whose attitude and behaviour he was trying to change.
- On the other hand, Dr Ambedkar disapproved of this strategy.
- According to him, the trusteeship model could never succeed because it was the upper class that was responsible for suppressing the dalits and treating them as untouchables.
- He accused Mahatma Gandhi of trying to derail the dalit movement by diffusing the radical momentum that it was gaining. He further accused Mahatma Gandhi of being biased towards the upper castes and of working to upper class interests and maintains the social status quo.
- Dr Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi also differed when it came to the strategy to address untouchability and caste based oppression.
- For Mahatma Gandhi solution lay in the Harijan program. It involved-
- Educating the upper castes through his 'Harijan' newspaper by the suffering of the depressed classes, their thinking and their aspirations. This was meant to engender empathy for the dalits.
- Citing religious scripture to argue that untouchability was not part of the original Hindu community and thus must be discarded.
- To remove the concept of purity and pollution by claiming that the untouchables are manifestations of the divine (Harijan i.e. children of the God).
- To encourage the upper castes to perform manual labour thus breaking down social taboos and removing the stigma associated with it.
- Dr Ambedkar on the other hand felt that Gandhian strategy was inherently flawed. Varna and caste systems were designed to oppress the depressed classes. Thus, a radical change was necessary.
- He advocated for the annihilation of the caste system due to its systematically oppressive nature. He argued that the dalits would never be able to live with dignity within a system that was designed to discriminate against, humiliate and oppress them. Thus, the caste and Varna distinctions must be destroyed if dalits were to have any chance at emancipation.
- Inspired by other reformers such as Shri Narayan Guru and EV Ramaswamy Naicker
- However, seeing the resistance to such movements, his final solution was that dalits should permanently leave the systemic oppression that they faced within Varna and caste system and consider themselves to be a religious minority distinct from Hinduism.
- By the time of independence, it had become clear that both Gandhi as well as Ambedkar had failed when it came to addressing untouchability and emancipating the
- He considered several options as a new religion for the dalits, most prominent among which were Jainism, Christianity, Islam and Buddhism.
- Jainism was rejected since modern Jainism was almost indistinguishable from modern Hinduism and converting to it could have presented the danger of the revival of the established pattern of the society.
- Christianity was rejected since it was considered too foreign and unfamiliar. It may have alienated the dalits from their indigenous roots and thus created hurdles for both their spiritual journey as well as national education.
- Islam was rejected because Dr Ambedkar was concerned about the future of dalit women within the fully patriarchal Islamic society. Further, historically conversion of
- Dr Ambedkar only settled in Buddhism due to its Indian roots and the reformative nature of its teachings. It was distinct enough that dalits would be able to maintain their separate identity but not so distinct that they would feel alienated. Thus, in a massive rally he converted to Buddhism transforming it to Neo-Buddhism.
- Civil Disobedience movement was withdrawn by Mahatma Gandhi in 1934 in accordance with his STS-PCP strategy. Shortly after this, he was arrested and a situation similar to the withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement was created.
- At this stage, the elections to the Central Legislative Assembly were scheduled for 1934 raising the big question with regards to the strategy that should be followed by the Congress.
- Gandhians wanted to adhere to the STS-PCP strategy and boycott the election. Instead the Congress focused upon constructive work and reviving its grassroot network in preparation for the next mass movement.
- Socialists led by JL Nehru and SC Bose did not agree with the decision to withdraw Civil disobedience. They blamed the industrialists and large business interests for its failure.
- In this backdrop, another prominent group emerged within the Congress under the leadership of C. Rajagopalachari who were known as the constitutionalist. They
- Constitutionalists prevailed. Socialists also got in line with the constitutionalist agenda.
- Government of India Act, 1935 removed hierarchy from the provinces in accordance with the provisions of this act. Assembly elections were scheduled for 11 British Indian provinces for 1937.
- This sparked fresh debate in the Congress revolving around two important questions-
- Council entry
- Office acceptance
- The Constitutionalists supported Council entry and wanted to form governments in the provinces that they were in a position to do so.
- They argued that the new act had provided them golden opportunity to give a glimpse of Swaraj to the masses.
- Provincial autonomy would allow popularly elected governments to bring social transformation without British intervention. This would further strengthen popular support for the movement and demoralize British bureaucracy.
- Once masses taste self-rule, hey will only be hungry for more.
- On the other hand, the socialists wanted to boycott 1937 elections due to the shortcomings in the 1935 act that had made no real progress towards Purna Swaraj and
- Therefore, the socialists wanted to boycott the elections and launch mass movement against British.
- Clearly, the socialists were opposed to the idea of office entry since it would be tantamount to collaboration with the government.
- However, the Constitutionalists prevailed and in order to present a united front, the socialists agreed to join them.
- Socialists participated enthusiastically in campaigning for the elections with Pt Nehru emerging as the base of the Congress was UP.
- This Act was the final result of the long process that had started with the appointment of the Simon Commission to review the Montford reform. Following this long sequence of events finally led to enactment of the 1935 act. These include-
- The Simon Commission Report
- Nehru Report
- Jinnah's 14 point demand
- Round Table Conference
- Discussions within the British Parliament
- Public opinion elicited through the publication of a white paper.
- Drafting within the parliament through a deliberative process. Provisions
- The act provided for the establishment of an All India Federation consisting of all British Indian provinces as well as princely states.
- Central Legislature was supposed to have two houses-
- Council of States with 260 members was to serve as the Upper House. It was to be a permanent body with one-third of the members retiring every second year.
- Federal Assembly with 375 members to be the lower house. It would have a term of 5 years.
- Princely states would be represented in both these houses through nomination while the representatives of India would be through election.
- These houses would continue to have ex-officio and government nominees as well but their proportion was reduced.
- However, this provision was never implemented since princely states did not ratify it and the central government continued to be organised on the basis of 1919 act.
- Dyarchy was introduced at the centre.
- This act provided for the division of the central administrative subjects to two lists- Reserved and Transferred.
- Reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor General with the assistance of his executive councilor.
- Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor General on the basis of the aid and advice of a council of ministers constituted of not more than 10 ministers chosen from among the elected members of the Central legislature.
- This provision was also never implemented.
- Legislative devolution was expanded by the creation of three lists of legislative subjects. These were
- Federal list
- Provincial list
- Concurrent list
- Act provided for the establishment of Federal Court.
- It was to have exclusive jurisdiction over disputes between the different federating units.
- Provincial autonomy was introduced with the abolition of dyarchy.
- The distinction between the reserved and transferred subjects was done away with. All subjects would be administered by popularly elected ministers who were responsible to the legislature.
- Bicameralism was also introduced for the provinces for the first time on a voluntary basis.
- The following provinces opted for a bicameral legislature- Assam, Bengal, UP, Bihar, Bombay and Madras.
- Two new provinces were created by this act
- Sindh was separated from Bombay province
- Orissa was separated from Bihar with its capital at Cuttack
- Burma and Aden were separated from British India and constituted as separate crown colonies.
- Separate electorates were granted to women and workers.
- Universal Adult Franchise was not introduced but voting qualifications were lowered by giving right to vote to almost 10% of Indian population.
- The Governor General retained his powers to make ordinances, declare emergency, veto bills, restore cuts and certify the defeated legislation.
- Similarly, provincial governors had the power to dismiss governments and dissolve legislature. Thus, they continued to enjoy extraordinary powers.
- 1935 act was a giant leap forward in the development of constitutionalism in India. It was the most comprehensive piece of constitutional legislation ever attempted by the British in India.
- The provisions of this act formed the basis of the constitution of independent India.
- The Indian constitution borrows heavily from this act and roughly 20% of its provisions are based on it. For example, provisions related to the federalism, emergency powers, ordinance making powers, the office of the Governor with suitable modifications were borrowed from the 1935 act.
- Supreme Court of India was inspired by this act. It inherited the original jurisdiction of the federal court.
- The introduction of provincial autonomy was a big step towards the establishment of responsible government in India.
- For the first time, people could feel the benefits of popular sovereignty and a government constituted of representatives elected by them. This act contained extremely significant 'Rules of business of the government of India'.
- It detailed the division of administrative work between different departments and ministries. It established hierarchy of officials in each department, creating a chain of command and fixing the jurisdiction of each department throughout all levels.
- Following independence, the machinery established by these rules was inherited by the Indian government and continued to provide administrative continuity and efficient and effective administration.
- This allowed India to overcome the significant challenges following independence.
- On the other hand, Pakistan's administration suffered since it discarded these rules after independence resulting in inter-departmental cooperation and rivalry undermining administration.
- While the Government of India Act, 1935 was a major improvement over the previous scheme, it was unable to satisfy nationalists due to the following factors-
- Instead of Purna Swaraj, it introduced the failed principle of dyarchy in the centre.
- Despite the introduction of provincial autonomy, there was no fundamental change in the power structure.
- The discretionary powers of the Governors and Governor General allowed them to undermine the responsibly elected government.
- The demand for Universal Adult Franchise had been ignored. Only 10% of Indians enjoyed the right to vote and the voting qualifications were skewed in favour of the
- The divisive principle of separate electorate was expanded further to further divide and weaken Indian society.
- By making the participation of princely states into the All India Federation voluntary, the act sought to permanently destroy the unity and integrity of future India.
- Further, this also undermined the nationalist sentiments and urges of the people living in the Princely states.
- Therefore, the Government of India Act, 1935 has been referred as 'sugar coated quinine'.
- It was designed to perpetuate British dominion over India without any meaningful reform. In fact, it was designed to expand the British apparatus of constitutional autocracy.
- Central Legislature- it as a bicameral legislature-
- Council of States with 260 members was to serve as the Upper House. It was to be a permanent body with one-third of the members retiring every second year.
- Federal Assembly with 375 members to be the lower house. It would have a term of 5 years.
- Princely states would be represented in both these houses through nomination while the representatives of India would be through election.
- Dyarchy was introduced at Centre with subjects divided into two lists- reserved and transferred. Reserved were to be administered by British executives whereas transferred subjects were given to responsible elected members.
- Administrative subjects were divided into three lists-
- Federal
- Provincial
- Concurrent
- Residuary powers resided with Governor General.
- Federal court was set up which later converted into the present day Supreme Court as the main court for federal disputes.
- Provincial autonomy was given thus completing the process of decentralisation.
- Dyarchy was also abolished from provinces.
- Bicameralism was also introduced in the provinces on a voluntary basis.
- Separate electorates were granted to women and workers.
- Universal Adult Franchise was not introduced but voting qualifications were lowered by giving right to vote to almost 10% of Indian population.
- The Governor General retained his powers to make ordinances, declare emergency, veto bills, restore cuts and certify the defeated legislation.
- Similarly, provincial governors had the power to dismiss governments and dissolve legislature. Thus, they continued to enjoy extraordinary powers.
- It ended the dyarchy in provinces which was introduced by Montford reforms. Instead it introduced responsible governments in provinces.
- Provincial autonomy was a significant step in divergence with the act of 1919.
- Supreme Court of India was established through the Act of 1935 thus strengthening the federal disputes resolution mechanism.
- Rather than on a religious basis as in the case of Montford reforms, this Act provided separate electorates to women and workers.
- Franchise was significantly increased as compared to the 1919 act.
- Clear separation of powers between centre and the union through three lists mentioned above was major step for legislative devolution.
- Instead of Purna Swaraj, it introduced the failed principle of dyarchy in the centre.
- Despite the introduction of provincial autonomy, there was no fundamental change in the power structure.
- The discretionary powers of the Governors and Governor General allowed them to undermine the responsibly elected government.
- By making the participation of princely states into the All India Federation voluntary, the act sought to permanently destroy the unity and integrity of future India.
- Franchise was limited to only 10% of the population.
- Eastern Muslim majority provinces- Assam and Bengal
- Western Muslim majority provinces- Punjab, Sindh and NWFP
- Hindu majority provinces- United Provinces, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and Bombay.
- It campaigned in all provinces
- It contested the elections in General, reserved as well as separate electorate constituencies.
- Its manifesto promised radical transformations including Abolition of Zamindari, tenancy reform, debt relief and reform of moneylending, upliftment of harijans and women,
- It contested primarily in Muslim majority provinces, focusing upon separate electorate, reserved constituencies.
- It promised to protect the religious freedoms and rights of Muslims and to protect the Muslim interests from 'Hindu tyranny'.
- It contested the election throughout India and promised to use state apparatus to promote Hindu culture, oppose British rule and defeat the politics of appeasement.
- It campaigned in Madras exclusively and promised to protect the interests of non- Brahmins against the Congress' pro-Brahmin politics.
- It also promised more reservation and jobs for non-Brahmins.
- More crucially, it promised to defend the large non-Brahmin businesses and landlords against the Congress' radical agenda.
- It campaigned primarily in the Marathi speaking regions of the Bombay province.
- It promised to end untouchability and uplift the depressed classes through structural reforms.
- He accused the Congress of diluting the dalit movement with its Harijan programme.
- These parties contested in their respective provinces.
- They promised to uphold the interests of their Muslim constituents against the All India Hindu majority.
- They also promised to protect Muslim businessmen and landlords against the Congress' radical workers' movement.
- Communists (CPI) did not participate as the centre had banned them.
- Congress Socialist Party formed in 1934 has emerged as a major influence within the Congress. They had most vocally opposed the Congress' participation in the election and office acceptance during the strategic debate.
- Instead, they wanted the Congress to launch a new mass movement with the support of workers and peasants.
- However, they were defeated by the alliance of constitutionalists and Gandhians.
- Therefore, at the Faizpur session of 1936, it was decided that Congress would take part in the elections.
- The Socialists then changed their strategy and worked to bring the Congress closer to workers and peasants.
- After elections, the socialists worked to fulfill the strongest working class demands within the framework of legal authority.
- The Congress secured clear majority in 5 out of 6 Hindu majority provinces except Bombay.
- Congress also emerged as the single largest party in Bombay and formed a coalition government with the help of smaller parties.
- Dr Ambedkar's party performed well winning 11 out of the 17 seats assigned as separate electorates for dalits.
- The Congress also emerged as the single largest party in Assam and most surprisingly in NWFP which had an overwhelming Muslim population. Here also, the Congress formed coalition governments.
- In Punjab, Sindh and Bengal, the regional parties emerged as the leaders. Jinnah entered a pact with these local parties and the Muslim League formed the government as the junior coalition partners.
- Gradually, the regional parties of these provinces were co-opted by Jinnah and emerged as Muslim League proxies.
- The 1937 elections represented an electoral disaster for the Muslim League. They performed poorly across the country and even in separate electorate and reserved
- The elections became controversial in the context of the UP Legislative Assembly. The
- The election results were a disaster for Muslim League. It performed exceptionally poorly while the Congress performed exceptionally well. Jinnah tried to convince Nehru
- Congress was morally opposed to this proposal as it would have weakened its secular position and made it an exclusively Hindu party. Simultaneously, it could have legitimised the Muslim League as the exclusive representative of Indian Muslims.
- The Congress no longer needed the Muslim League's support to form the government as it had secured the complete majority to form the government.
- Jinnah accused the Congress of violating the pact and began poisonous campaign targeting the Congress and personally attacking Nehru.
- He addressed a series of mass rallies across the Muslim dominated regions of UP. In his communally charged speeches, he engaged in fear mongering. He told the Muslim masses that Islam is in danger under the Hindu dominated Congress rule.
- His lightening campaign proved extremely effective.
- Within three months, Jinnah was able to enlist roughly one lakh new Muslim league members in UP alone.
- The same pattern was repeated across India and was highly successful especially in Muslim majority provinces of Western and Eastern India.
- Jinnah's new radicalism against the Congress was also evident in the functioning of the provincial governments of Punjab, Sindh and Bengal.
- The Muslim League's coalition governments in these provinces actively used the colonial police and security apparatus to suppress Congress, socialists and Hindu right wing politicians alike.
- A visible rift began emerging in the two halves of India foretelling the painful future.
- The election result legitimised the Congress as the most popular party in the whole of India.
- These elections also shattered the artificial parity between the Congress and other political parties that had been manufactured by the government to deliberately weaken the Congress' movement.
- The masses had responded positively to the Congress' inclusive and progressive agenda while rejecting the divisive politics of caste, religion and language. In other words, the masses and voted for free, progressive and united India.
- This was a big blow on the morale of the British rule.
- The 1935 election results were also a huge step forward in the emerging socialist movement in the Indian politics.
- The masses had supported the left leaning agenda of the Congress and the Congress had benefited greatly in the form of major victories.
- The growing leftward shift was reflected both within and outside the institutional framework of the Congress ministries.
- Many Kisan Sabha leaders became agriculture ministers in the provincial governments while many trade union leaders were appointed as labour ministers.
- In order to fulfill electoral promises, the provincial governments of several Congress governed states introduced policies to address the demands of the working class. SC
- The masses had voted in favour of the inclusive All India framework of the Congress. They had come out in support of a free, united, progressive and socialist India. The
- In future, the Congress would continue to push forward this agenda even more strongly.
- However, the 1935 election also exposed the dangerous cracks present within the national movement.
- One of these cracks appeared immediately. Congress and Muslim League parted ways following the controversy associated with the UP assembly elections.
- The other crack that is between the Congress right and left wing developed gradually as a result of the constant friction between these two ideological opponents within the framework of legal authority.
- In the end, Congress was not able to fully satisfy either group resulting in the erosion of popular support in both camps.
- The alienated sections moved towards the Muslim League and its highly communalized agenda. The Congress learnt the bitter lesson that campaigning and governing are two radically different tasks. It came face to face with the practical obstacles of administration and found itself wanting.
- The Congress was able to form governments in eight out of the eleven provinces namely UP, Bihar, CP, Orissa, Bombay, Madras, Assam and NWFP.
- In these provinces, the Congress introduced a series of policies to fulfill its promises made to the people during the election campaign.
- These policies fall under the Congress' political, agricultural, industrial and social programme.
- Emergency powers acquired by the Provincial governments though the Public Safety Act, 1929 were repealed.
- Bans on political organisations such as the Hindustan Sewa Dal and the Youth League were also lifted.
- However, the ban on the communists remained in place since it was enforced by the Central government and could be lifted only by it.
- All restrictions on the Press were removed.
- Securities taken from the publishers were removed and the policy of blacklisting hostile publications from government advertisement was lifted.
- Repealed arms licenses were reformed and confiscated arms were returned.
- Police powers were curbed.
- Political prisoners were freed and detainees were liberated.
- Further, the Congress ministries ended the policy of shadowing of political leaders or opposition by the CID.
- The Congress ministries also worked to restore the properties confiscated during the Civil disobedience movement.
- Further, the pensions of those government officials who had sympathized with the civil disobedience movement were also restored.
- However, the Congress' record with regards to the civil liberties was not perfect. Right wing Congress government of Madras led by C. Rajagopalachari prosecuted socialist leaders such as Yusuf Mehrally and SS Batliwala.
- Much worse was the Bombay government with KM Munshi as the Home minister. He used CID to shadow the communists and left wing Congressmen earning a public reprimand from the Congress high command i.e. Pt Jawahar Lal Nehru.
- The Congress tried to provide economic reforms to peasants as quickly as possible. It remained committed to its policies of tenancy reforms, reduction of land revenue and rent, reducing the debt burden of rent and regulating the moneylending business.
- Congress was pursuing a strategy of class adjustment. Multi-class movement required the balancing of mutually opposite class interests. This was necessary to present a
- Under the constitutional scheme established by the 1935 act, provincial governments were not powerful enough to carry out the total abolition of Zamindari.
- The Governor General enjoyed extraordinary powers with respect to general administration and since Zamindari abolition would have involved an overhaul of the administrative structure, it would definitely have been blocked.
- In many of the Congress governed provinces, bicameral legislature has been set up under the Government of India Act, 1935- UP, Bihar, Madras, Orissa, and Bombay. The
- The task of Zamindari abolition would have required extraordinary funding. The provincial governments were not in a financial position to fund such an initiative.
- The Congress leadership also lacked confidence in the local bureaucracy whose cooperation was considered essential for Zamindari abolition. This was because many of the Zamindari employees had vested interests in the continuation of Zamindari.
- The Congress ministries were also constrained for time. Leadership knew that ministries would not last long since the logic of their politics was to challenge imperialism and not
- Tenancy laws were passed in UP, Bihar and Orissa giving several rights to the tenants and imposing restrictions on Zamindars. In Bombay, CP and NWFP also, the peasants received occupancy rights, security of tenure and legal protections.
- Rent control was attempted in many provinces with differing degrees of success. The poorest performer was Bombay, while UP and Bihar were the most successful.
- Reduction of land revenue was also attempted in all Congress ruled provinces. However, except Bihar where it was reduced by half, it was blocked either by the state legislative councils or the Governor General.
- The regulation of moneylending ran into legal hurdles as the Congress faced stiff opposition from a dual alliance of moneylenders and lawyers. Legal profession defended
- Congress remained steadfastly committed to peasant cause.
- Most peasants across India remained loyal to the Congress.
- Congress also benefitted from the newly emergent organised peasant movements such as the Kisan sabhas.
- However, left leaning Congress leaders were dissatisfied by the slow progress and drifted towards the communists.
- Further, the peasant programme also alienated Zamindars and moneylenders who began supporting the loyalist cause.
- Most Muslim zamindars and moneylenders gravitated towards the Muslim League and regional Muslim parties who promised to shield them from the tyranny of Congress, the communists and the Congress President.
- The Congress ministries in general adopted a pro-labour stance. Their approach included-
- Promote labour interest while upholding the industrial peace.
- Ensuring that strikes and lockouts become measures of the last resort.
- Establishing a fair and just dispute resolution mechanism.
- Advocating compulsory arbitration before ay strike or lockout.
- Creating goodwill between workers and capitalists with the Congress emerging as the intermediary.
- Congress took some steps to fulfill worker's demands such as setting up an Industrial disputes committee in Bombay and Labour inquiry committees in UP and Bihar. They recommended-
- Compulsory arbitration of industrial disputes
- Prohibition of strikes and lockouts
- Increasing worker's wages
- Providing for the recruitment of workers through independent labour boards
- Maternity benefits to women workers
- Strengthening of trade union rights Contradiction
- However, from the very beginning, Congress' worker programme ran into major contradictions-
- The capitalists had provided much of the campaign funding to the Congress during the 1937 elections. Thus, radical workers' programme was not possible.
- There was a growing rift between the right and left wings within the Congress. Right wing leaders felt threatened by the emergence of Bolshevism and did not want a
- As a result, while the conservatives slowed down the agenda of the workers' movement, they were unable to restore the trust of the capitalist class. On the other hand, the workers felt increasingly agitated and drifted further towards the left.
- Prohibition was implemented in selected areas of different states. The Gandhian objective of total prohibition was not attempted because-
- There was lack of popular support in many areas
- Excise duty on liquor was a major source of provincial revenue.
- Untouchable Emancipation- in the sphere of emancipating and empowering untouchables or harijans, following steps were taken-
- Laws were passed allowing harijans to enter temple freely.
- Access to public spaces such as roads, parks, theatres, schools, restaurants, hotels, water wells etc. was given legally.
- No government authority or functionary would recognize any usage or custom which imposed any civil disability on harijans.
- The number of scholarships to harijan students was increased.
- Recruitment of harijans in police and government services was encouraged.
- The Congress also paid attention to primary, secondary and higher education alongwith public health and sanitation.
- Special emphasis was given to the education of harijans and girls.
- Mass literacy campaigns for adults were organised.
- Basic education with an emphasis on manual and productive work was expanded.
- Subsidy support was provided to Khadi enterprises and village industries.
- Prison reforms were carried out involving better conditions of incarceration, abolition of solitary confinement, introduction of educational and rehabilitative programmes, release of undertrials and legal access to imprisoned inmates.
- On the whole, the legislative and administrative record of the Congress ministries was positive. Even though the left was critical, many of its expectations had been fulfilled to a large extent.
- A major achievement of the Congress ministries was their firm handling of communal riots. This was remarkable given the heavily charged atmosphere of communal politics
- Congress leadership also demonstrated its ability to resist the imperialist design of using constitutional reforms to weaken nationalism. Instead, they demonstrated how
- Another important outcome of 28 months of Congress rule was the demoralization of the bureaucracy. British civil servants could no longer lock the reform agenda of
- Congress rule also gave the people glimpse of Swaraj. It showed what could be achieved by committed leadership enjoying relatively little power. Thus, it raised the hopes of the
- The Congress was also able to prevent provincialism which had been one of the major objectives of the 1935 act. British expected that Indian unity would be weakened by the independent policy of the different provincial governments.
- However, Congress ministries strictly adhered to the Central Congress committee's directives throughout the 28 months. Thus, nationalism was strengthened instead of becoming weaker.
- By balancing the contradictory and mutually exclusive interests of the right and the left, Congress was able to prevent major split from taking place. This was something that the British were desperately trying to engineer since 1934.
- There was significant growth of factional strife on both ideological and personal grounds. There was constant tension between the left and the right wing leaders.
- Due to the rising friction, some leaders even resigned from their ministerial positions including NB Khare who resigned as Premier of CP. Similarly, labour leaders of Bombay and Madras also resigned in opposition to the Trade Disputes Act.
- The emergence of opportunist leaders- Since the Congress was an open platform, so political opportunists were drawn to it due to the allure of ministerial power.
- However, they did not firmly believe in the Congress' agenda and diluted progressive and reformist credentials of the Congress ministries from within.
- Misuse of governmental power- some right wing dominated Congress ministries resorted to the use of colonial laws, and police to suppress their political opponents. In this regard, Bombay and Madras governments were the biggest culprits.
- Not only did this erode the trust of the ordinary people, it also widened the emerging political divide between the right and the left.
- The strategy of class adjustment failed to fully satisfy either class. The zamindars and capitalists became apprehensive of the peasant and workers' program, this forced the
- The failure of the Congress ministries to fulfill the peasants' and workers' demands fully broke the alliance between the Congress and organised workers and peasant movements.
- For example, All India Kisan Sabha led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati did not participate in the Quit India Movement and remained loyal alongwith the Communist Party of India.
- Second World War had begun and Allied powers were facing reversals from the axis powers particularly from Germany. Thus, Viceroy Linlithgow unilaterally declared war on
- Congress objected to this unilateral declaration of war making India a party to it without its own consent. Even within Congress, there were varying opinions with regards to the response to this declaration.
- Socialists led by SC Bose talked in favour of launching a mass movement against the British rule as it was already vulnerable at the moment.
- On the other hand, Gandhians were not in favour of the immediate action. Rather, they wanted a negotiated settlement through which they would extend Indian support to the British in return for the guarantee of self-determination with the transfer of power to an interim government immediately.
- However, conservative group of leaders wanted the Congress to support the British unconditionally. They did not want the Congress to resign at that time which would embarrass British government. They believed the British fight against fascism as just.
- Mass movement at that time was neither possible due to lack of preparation nor desirable considering the global threat of fascism. However, supporting the British
- On 22 nd December, 1939, the Muslim League celebrated the 'Day of Deliverance' in order to celebrate the deliverance of people from 'Caste Hindu Congress Rule'.
- Moreover, the resignation of Congress also allowed the Muslim League and its coalition partners to form governments in NWFP and Assam.
- Apart from this, there was growing opposition within the Congress on the issue of office acceptance. Socialists were particularly against any participation in the British administrative machinery which they considered as collaboration.
- By this time, Socialists had grown further strong mainly because of Congress' provincial governments' failure in class adjustment and the demand for resignation became stronger.
- Further, running of the Congress ministries had become problematic resulting in internal divisions, thus weakening the Congress from within and also destroying national unity.
- Owing to some unpopular decisions, Congress was losing its base among masses which was a major concern.
- Rising Corruption in Congress and the misuse of ministerial authority was antithetical to the Congress' initial idea behind the acceptance of the office.
- Central leadership as well as those leaders who had opposed the idea of taking office for this exact fear was now vociferously criticizing the prevailing corruption.
- Open criticism of the provincial governments has already been discussed above.
As the Company's domains expanded and its responsibilities diversified, a series of new questions had to be faced. What type of government should be set up in the new territories?
What kind of political institutions would fit most suitably with Indian social structures? And what of the 'pacified' Indians? Should they be educated, or even converted to more acceptable forms of religion? Was the EIC really a fit organ of government? Should its monopoly be maintained? Distinct approaches to these questions emerged, each with its partisan advocates.
Industrial Capitalism In the 18 th century,the EICfaced domesticopposition dueto thefearsof perniciousinfluence of corrupt nabobs on English society and politic leading to the Acts of 1773, 1784 and attempts at professionalization of its bureaucracy. Still, the EIC remained powerful and entrenched in parliamentary politics and never lost its trade monopoly. In the 19 th century, however, the scale of opposition to it changed after industrial capitalists became powerful.
Growing Opposition to the Company in London Duetothemonopoly,nobodyin Englandhadrighttodobusiness with Indiaandanyonetrying would be arrested and imprisoned. By the late 18 th century, there was growing opposition to the East India Company's (EIC) monopoly over commerce with India and China.
Thus, a loose free trade pressure group had been operating in British politics for some time and had tried, unsuccessfully, to have the Company's monopoly withdrawn in 1793.
With renewal of the charter due in 1813, this alliance of manufacturers and exporters reinvigorated its efforts. These industrial capitalists successfully bribed/pressurized the government to abolish trade monopoly by Charter Act of 1813 partially and 1833 fully.
The Charter of 1793 The control over the Company was further tightened when its Charter was renewed in 1793.
written laws (rules and regulations). Pure discretionary powers of the administration was thus to be curtailed.
The Act of 1793 was a consolidating measure. It laid out the high-sounding principle of non-
aggression. This was merely a re-iteration of the principle already defined in the Pitt's India Act of 1784. However,this policy remained a high-soundingprinciple and was notfollowed by the Governors-General (Cornwallis, Wellesley, Hastings). Even though the Directors of the Companywerenotenthusiasticaboutthewars,the Governorstookadvantageofthedistance from London, and a more protracted process of decision making on part of the Bo C and Co D.
Thus, the Company continued to expand its territorial limits. Before the Act of 1813, it had brought under its sway a significant part of Indian territory.
The Charter Act of 1813 The Company fiercely contested the proposal to abolish its Indian monopoly when its charter came up for renewal in 1813.
Parliamentwas,ontheotherhand,unconvincedof the Company'sargumentsand the Charter Act of 1813 put an end to its monopoly over India.
Provisions
The Charter Act of 1813 was thus an important benchmark in the push towards westernisation of India. At pace with the altered conditions, Company rule in India now had to act as an accessory, an instrument to ensure 'the necessary conditions of law and order' to make the vast Indian market captive for British goods.
The Charter Act of 1833 When the time came to renew the Charter in 1833, there was increased pressure in Britain for the government to take over the Indian administration directly and abolish the Company.
The Reform Act of 1832 had recently been passed, which fuelled a general desire for reform in Britain. A parliamentary inquiry was conducted, and the resulting Act of 1833 became a significant moment in the constitutional history of India.
This Actbecame alandmarkin the constitutionalhistoryof India andhad alarger significance.
Most of its provisions pertained to arrangements for governing the Indian empire. The framework evolved in 1833 was to continue almost unchanged down to 1858, and some elements were retained in the latter half of the nineteenth century.
Provisions
It made a distinction between the executive and legislative duties of the Governor
General. Thus, this was the conceptual beginning of the legislative council.
▪ The council thus became the main legislative body in India. Presidency governments could submit drafts of legislation to the council for consideration.
▪ Thomas Macaulay was the first law member to be appointed.
▪ Subsequently, both civil and criminal codes were prepared based on the recommendation of the law commission.
The Charter Act of 1853 In 1853, during the renewal of the Company's charter, the parliament asserted its right to decide how India was to be governed more strongly than before. The free traders' demand to end the Company's mechanism of governing India, which had already won a significant victory with the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, could not be ignored much longer. Yet the Companycouldstillmustersufficientpoliticalsupporttobeabletocontinuewithitshold over the Indian empire, even though this hold was considerably weakened by the 1853 Act.
Provisions
Majesty, her heirs and successors until Parliament shall otherwise provide", thus keeping the door ajar for a future takeover. Thus, it was made clear that the Company would be in control till the Parliament would make alternative arrangement.
▪ A committee was constituted by the board of control to work out the modalities of the competition. Public examinations commenced in 1855.
▪ (Did not sit when the council met to discuss executive matters)
After 1773, 1783 and 1833, British company in India simply remained a shadow of its own authority. Examine.
It is true that the EIC gradually transformed from a trading concern into a political-
administrative body. As the time went by, increasing checks were instituted by the British parliament to regulate the Company's finances, reduce corruption as well as manage the foreign policy. It was done in order to ensure that the Company doesn't emerge as an autocratic power, and India remains open for all the British in London. It started with the Regulating Act of 1773 in the wake of the financial debacle post-1770 s famine.
It went a step further in the Pitt's India 1783, when a Board of Control was formed and dual controlovercompanyaffairswithparliamentarysupervisionwascreated.Later,bythe Charter of 1833, the trade monopoly wasabolished,diminished its commercial role and the Company was converted into administrative authority which had to work to the tune of London.
However, despite the attempts to increase the oversight, in practice, the Company was never amereshadow.Itreservedunlimitedadministrativeauthorityin India.Duetothelackofquick communication between Londonand Calcutta,Indianadministratorsalwayshadsomeleeway in decision-making. London couldn't make a proper supervision and thus, the Governor-
General was a man-on-the-spot with arbitrary power. Post 1833, Governors-General from Auckland to Ellenborough and above all Lord Dalhousie carried unrestricted annexationism in their will.
Thus, even though the Company was gradually hollowed out from 1773 till 1858 when it was finally abolished, it remained to be a powerful body. Its primary function however evolved over time, first as commercial and later as administrative.
Round Table Conference, Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Communal Award Contents Simon Commission and anti-Simon agitation (1927-28)........................................................................2 Nehru Committee Report.......................................................................................................................3 Response of different Political Parties................................................................................................4 Jinnah's fourteen point demand.........................................................................................................4 Purna Swaraj Resolution, 1929...............................................................................................................4 Significance.........................................................................................................................................5 Practice Question................................................................................................................................6 Q. Discuss the circumstances behind the Purna Swaraj resolution. What was its significance to the national struggle?.....................................................................................................................6 Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-31) (1932-34)...............................................................................8 Important Developments and programmes within the Civil Disobedience movement.....................9 Salient features of the movement....................................................................................................10 First Round Table Conference...............................................................................................................11 Practice Question..............................................................................................................................12 Q. The mechanism of the round table conferences was designed to fail. Critically evaluate......12 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)......................................................................................................................13 Significance of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact...............................................................................................13 Practice Question..............................................................................................................................14 Q. Discuss the circumstances leading upto the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. What was its significance for the national struggle?...................................................................................................................14 Karachi session, 1931........................................................................................................................15 Significance of Karachi resolutions ...............................................................................................16 Aftermath..............................................................................................................................................16 Mc Donald Award (1932)/ Communal Award.......................................................................................17 Gandhi's Response............................................................................................................................17 Poona Pact........................................................................................................................................17 Significance.......................................................................................................................................18
Simon Commission and anti-Simon agitation (1927-28)
Constitutional reforms. If the consensus of all political parties emerged, the British would implement it without a delay.
Response of different Political Parties Congress- It accepted all the recommendations of the Nehru report.
Young leaders within the Congress accepted the reports partially. Instead of Dominion status, they wanted complete independence.
Hindu Mahasabha- It rejected the report on the ground that it provided reservation to Muslims.
Muslim League- It rejected with Jinnah arguing that it did not have sufficient protection for Muslim interests and in response raised his famous fourteen point demand program.
Jinnah's fourteen point demand
Purna Swaraj Resolution, 1929
Mohani had also interpreted Swaraj means complete independence from British rule during the non-cooperation movement.
implement it. Failing this, the Congress would launch mass movement to attain Purna Swaraj i.e. complete independence.
the demand of complete independence and authorized Mahatma Gandhi to launch the mass movement to achieve it.
Significance
such, during the 1940 s, the Congress would reject several offers of dominion status by the British.
result in more frequent, more direct confrontations between the nationalists and the British.
With the rise of the younger leaders, the socialist ideology became increasingly prominent within the Congress. SC Bose and Jawahar Lal Nehru would all for structural reforms in the living and working conditions of the workers and peasants. This presented a challenge to the Gandhian ideal of trusteeship and class cooperation. As the socialist ideology matured, the Congress witnessed the rise of the left within itself in the form of the Congress Socialist party (1934).
enthusiastic support of the workers' movement. This was reflected in the growth of Trade Union movement and Kisan Sabha movement during the 1930 s.
In CDM, once a radical peasant movement against Zamindars emerged, he began a no
rent campaign within the Civil Disobedience movement himself.
Practice Question Q. Discuss the circumstances behind the Purna Swaraj resolution. What was its significance to the national struggle?
Purna Swaraj resolution was passed in Lahore session of the Congress (1929) presided over by Jawahar Lal Nehru. It is symbolic of maturity and intensification of Indian nationalism which did not seem in the mood of compromise after this.
Circumstances behind the Purna Swaraj resolution
Congress would launch a mass struggle to attain Purna Swaraj.
Significance of the Purna Swaraj resolution
Therefore, this intensification and maturity of Indian national struggle after the Purna Swaraj resolution did not allow Congress to compromise for anything less ultimately building pressure on the British to leave India.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-31)
(1932-34)
Swaraj resolution. Following this, Congress handed over the leadership of the nationalist movement to Mahatma Gandhi authorizing him to begin a programme of mass civil disobedience to attain Purna Swaraj.
Some of the major demands included
Important Developments and programmes within the Civil Disobedience movement
6 th April with thousands of followers. At Dandi, he broke the salt law by picking up salt from the beaches.
Khidmadgar organisation also known as the 'Red Shirts' and his weekly Pushto magazine 'Pakhtoon' organized massive demonstrations in cities such as Peshawar against British rule in violation of Unlawful Assembly Prevention Law.
Salient features of the movement
Mahatma Gandhi played an instrumental role in organizing the movement and remained in supreme control from its beginning to the end.
in the early stages of emergence and under Mahatma Gandhi Congress relied heavily on the support of industrialists which made the workers suspicious.
British regime was criticized and condemned by the liberal western democracies and the Soviets alike. Britain, therefore, came under increasing international pressure to introduce liberal reforms.
effects of boycotting foreign goods and foreign yarn thus pressurizing the Congress to reach an agreement with the government. This was another factor behind the Gandhi-
Irwin Pact.
First Round Table Conference
The British were simply conducting them as a hollow media event to show the Indian people and the international community that Indians were being given a fair opportunity to determine their political future.
Thus, the round table conferences were bound to fail.
Practice Question Q. The mechanism of the round table conferences was designed to fail.
Critically evaluate.
Three Round Table Conferences were held between 1930 and 1932 to discuss the recommendations of Simon Commission and break the political deadlock that was created in the aftermath of anti-Simon agitation.
However, its mechanism was designed to fail because-
considered as the hollow media event to create an impression of British efforts for the well-being of Indians.
Absence of Congress suggests absence of the largest platform created for representation of Indian interests but the conference still continued thus showing British apathy for the cause.
The Round Table Conferences proved the futility of any positive or progressive discussions with the British and the Congress treaded cautiously in any such future negotiations. It only convinced nationalists to continue the struggle against the Colonial autocracy.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
British. Mahatma Gandhi was the first Indian to be invited for the direct dialogue with the Governor General. This was proof of the growing popularity of the Congress movement and Gandhi's stature as India's national leader. The government was not in a position to neglect the Congress and its participation in the round table conference was considered essential for its success.
socialist ideology, the industrialists remained an important pressure group. Further, it also showcases the close relationship between the industrialists and Mahatma Gandhi.
This also shows that the Congress movement could not be sustained on popularity alone. In fact, it was a grand collaborative exercise between different interest groups.
This had exposed weaknesses in the Gandhian strategy creating space for the further growth of socialism within the national movement.
Practice Question Q. Discuss the circumstances leading upto the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. What was its significance for the national struggle?
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931), signed between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Irwin, was a major development which resulted in the suspension of Civil disobedience movement and facilitated Congress' participation in the round table conference.
Circumstances leading upto the Gandhi-Irwin Pact were-
Significance of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact for national struggle
Gandhi-Irwin Pact clearly demonstrated the Congress as the national organisation and Gandhi as its undisputed leader. This allowed the nationalist to leap forward in the coming years.
Karachi session, 1931
Significance of Karachi resolutions
Aftermath
consensus could be created on important issues such as separate electorates, reservation of minorities, protection for the depressed classes, the scope of responsible government and the participation of princely states in an All India federation.
Mc Donald Award (1932)/ Communal Award
Gandhi's Response
Poona Pact
Significance
during this episode that Mahatma Gandhi began his Harijan program to end untouchability and emancipate the dalits.
'Periyar', Dr Ambedkar wanted the dalits to begin a movement against the use of family names or caste denominations. Similarly, he wanted to encourage inter-caste and inter-Varna marriages to dilute caste and Varna identities.
untouchables. Therefore, Dr Ambedkar resolved to encourage the dalits to leave the fold of Hinduism and convert to a system that did not consider them impure and untouchable.
untouchables to Islam had not sufficiently ended their social marginalization. Most importantly, country had recently undergone painful partition accompanied with massive bouts of communal violence between Hindus and Muslims. If dalits were to embrace Islam en masse it could spark another communal pogrom.
Months' INC Rule Contents Post CDM strategic debate within the INC.............................................................................................3 Stage 1.................................................................................................................................................3 Stage 2 (After the Government of India Act, 1935)............................................................................4 Government of India Act, 1935...............................................................................................................5 Background.........................................................................................................................................5 Provisions............................................................................................................................................5 Critical Evaluation...................................................................................................................................7 Strengths of the Act............................................................................................................................7 Limitations ..........................................................................................................................................7 Practice Question................................................................................................................................8 Q. Discuss the features of the Government of India Act, 1935. Comparing it to Montford Reforms, discuss its strengths and weaknesses. ............................................................................8 28 Months' INC Rule.............................................................................................................................11 Provincial Elections, 1937.................................................................................................................11 Parties/Contestants..........................................................................................................................11 Congress........................................................................................................................................11 All India Muslim League................................................................................................................11 All India Hindu Mahasabha...........................................................................................................11 Justice Party..................................................................................................................................11 Dr Ambedkar and the Liberal Party ..............................................................................................12 Other regional parties-..................................................................................................................12 Left Parties....................................................................................................................................12 Results...........................................................................................................................................13 Significance and controversy................................................................................................................13 28 Months of Congress Rule.................................................................................................................16 Political Reforms...............................................................................................................................16 Agrarian reforms...............................................................................................................................17
Why the complete abolition of Zamindari not attempted? .........................................................17 Steps taken by Congress ministries...............................................................................................18 Impact of Congress' agrarian programme....................................................................................18 Worker's Programme....................................................................................................................18 Contradiction ................................................................................................................................19 Social Reforms...............................................................................................................................19 Critical evaluation of 28 months' of Congress rule...............................................................................20 Positives............................................................................................................................................20 Negatives...........................................................................................................................................21 End of Congress Rule ............................................................................................................................22
Post CDM strategic debate within the INC Stage 1
They argued that the Congress should mobilise workers and peasants into a radical anti-
colonial movement. They believed that British imperialism was weak due to the effects of the Great depression and a determined workers' movement could be able to overthrow it. In this context, Pt Nehru came up with his alternate strategy for mass struggle i.e. the S-V or struggle-victory strategy and pushed for continuous struggle till victory.
disagreed with both the Gandhian as well as the socialist strategy. According to them, the task of constructive work among the masses does not require boycotting elections.
Further, they expressed doubts regarding Mahatma Gandhi's leadership due to failure of the Civil Disobedience. On the other hand, the Nehruvian strategy of continuous struggle was considered dangerous since it would involve the element of class struggle. Further, socialists pointed out poor economic condition, high inflation, shortage of essential goods and pessimistic mood of the masses and dismissed the idea that Congress was in a position to mobilise any meaningful popular support. Instead they argued that Congress should contest the elections and enter the legislative chambers. From within these councils, the leaders would lead the struggle against British rule with hope for the masses and enthusing them.
However, Mahatma Gandhi said that it was a moral defeat for him personally and quit the Congress remarking that he was out of tune with the powerful trends within the Congress. This threatened to tear the Congress apart. Thus, Mahatma Gandhi
announced that he would continue to support the Congress from the outside and implicitly approved the Congress' participation in the upcoming election.
Stage 2 (After the Government of India Act, 1935)
was considered hollow. Further, the Principle of dyarchy had been introduced in the Central government.
Government of India Act, 1935 Background
Critical Evaluation Strengths of the Act
Limitations
privileged section. Thus, most vulnerable section of the Indian population was left completely voiceless.
Practice Question Q. Discuss the features of the Government of India Act, 1935. Comparing it to Montford Reforms, discuss its strengths and weaknesses.
Government of India Act, 1935 was formulated after a lengthy discussion and was so voluminous that it is also considered as the precursor to the independent India's constitution.
Features of the Government of India Act, 1935
Its strengths and weaknesses as compared to the Montford Reforms
Strengths
Weaknesses
While the 1919 Act necessitated revision in less than a decade, Act of 1935 went on to influence the Constitution of India. However, it had some weaknesses due to which it had to go through the process of Indianisation and democratization by India constituent assembly.
28 Months'INC Rule Provincial Elections, 1937 Under the framework created by the Government of India Act, 1935, Provincial elections were held in 11 British Indian provinces in 1937. These were-
Parties/Contestants Congress
workers' reforms including job security, higher wages and the right to form unions, release of political prisoners, ending of the police state established by the British etc.
All India Muslim League
All India Hindu Mahasabha
Justice Party
Dr Ambedkar and the Liberal Party
Other regional parties
Sindh united Party of Khwaja Abdullah Haroom Unionist Party- Sikandar Hayat Khan Krishak Praja Party (Bengal) - Fazl-ul Haq
Left Parties
Results
provinces for Muslims. This weakened its legitimacy as the leader of Indian Muslims.
Significance and controversy
Congress and Muslim League had formed a pre-poll alliance in accordance of which, they had divided the electoral constituencies among themselves. However, tension was present from the very beginning as Nehru had rejected Jinnah's proposal that the Muslim League should have exclusive rights to field candidates in constituencies reserved for Muslims.
that the Congress should not appoint any Muslim ministers claiming that the Muslim league had the exclusive right to do so. However, Pt Nehru refused for the following reasons-
Bose was possibly the most vocal left leaning Congress leader who was elected as the Congress President twice in 1938 (Haripura) and 1939 (Tripuri) and set up the National Planning Committee (1938) to begin the task of economic planning.
Congress would have to fulfill its promises and commit itself to the electoral agenda that had led to its electoral success.
28 Months of Congress Rule
Political Reforms
Agrarian reforms
Why the complete abolition of Zamindari not attempted?
united front to British imperialism, the main enemy of Indians. Congress wanted to win over or atleast neutralized as large a part of the Zamindar class as possible and isolate the enemy depriving it of all social support within India. This was even more necessary since in many parts of the country, small landlords actively supported the national movement.
upper houses (state legislative councils) represented reactionary second chambers consisting of nominated members and loyalists elected on the basis of a very narrow franchise. They were dominated by Zamindars, moneylenders and capitalists with the Congress forming a small minority. They created hurdles in the path of any substantial reform which threatened their class interests.
Further, the provincial governments did not have sufficient information on the crucial components of the agrarian structure such as land rights, occupancy status, land use etc.
without this information, the abolition of Zamindar was virtually impossible.
cooperate with it. Therefore, the ministries had to act quickly and achieve as much as possible in the limited time available.
Steps taken by Congress ministries
the moneylending business and opposed its strict regulation because debt litigation constituted a major source of their income. Thus, progress remained abortive. However, in provinces such as Bihar, Orissa, CP, Madras and NWFP Debtors' Relief Acts provided some relief in the form of reducing the debt burden, liberating bonded labourers and abolishing the fees or use of community lands such as grazing pastures and village land.
Impact of Congress' agrarian programme
Worker's Programme
bloody revolution that would derail the national movement, disrupt administration, deteriorate law and order and destroy national unity. On the other hand, left wing leaders questioned the Congress' sincerity towards the workers' agenda. For example, various trade bills were designed to support the trade unions created by the capitalists rather than the workers.
Congress policy of class cooperation ad strategy of class adjustment received a major setback due to the division of class groups into pro and anti-Congress factions.
Social Reforms
Critical evaluation of 28 months' of Congress rule Positives
prevalent during the late 1930 s due to the divisive agenda being pursued by the Muslim League.
constitutional power could be used to further national aims rather than getting co-
opted. As a result, national consciousness was far stronger at the end of Congress rule than it had been in 1937.
popularly elected Indian ministers. Many came to believe that the end of British rule was simply a matter of time now.
masses towards the prospect of Purna swarajya. As a result, masses were ready to sacrifice even more because of complete independence. This is reflected in the extent of mass participation during the Quit India Movement.
Negatives
Congress to dilute these programmes, thus alienating the workers. In the end, 28 months of Congress rule ended up alienating a section of both classes.
End of Congress Rule- On 22 nd October, 1939, Congress ministries of all the eight provinces resigned en masse. The following are the reasons ascribed for the decision-
behalf of India against Germany on 3 rd September, 1939 without consulting popular mood in India.
unconditionally, as the conservatives wanted, would erode the credibility of the Congress in the eyes of the people. Thus, the Gandhian idea of negotiated settlement seemed more feasible but to bring the British government to the negotiating table needed Congress' resignation.